The Napoleonic Era (1799-1815) reshaped France and Europe through reform, empire, war, and Napoleon’s defeat.

The French Revolution was the process that began with a challenge to the rule of Louis XVI and ended with Napoleon Bonaparte’s rise to power.

The Enlightenment challenged absolutism, clerical privilege, mercantilism, and inherited social hierarchy.

The Renaissance reshaped European culture through humanism, classical learning, visual realism, and print.

Modern states were characterized by absolutism and mercantilism, and would inaugurate a new international order.

Feudalism was a political, economic and social system that existed in Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries.