18th Century

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  Viceroyalties, Audiencias, and Cabildos in Spanish America

  Spanish America before the Bourbon reforms was governed through layered institutions that made royal power depend on negotiation.

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  Estates-General of 1789: Why an Old Assembly Became a Political Rupture

  The Estates-General of 1789 turned France’s fiscal crisis into a dispute over representation and national sovereignty.

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  Colonial Brazil (1500-1822): Politics, Economy and Society

  For three centuries, Brazil was ruled by Portugal under a harsh colonial system whose practices continued long after independence.

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  The Life of African Slaves in Brazil: Violence and Resistance

  Africans and their descendants lived in subjugation in Brazil, but they resisted it and left a legacy in Brazilian society.

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  African Slave Trade to Brazil: Reasons, Operation, and End

  For many centuries, millions of Africans were transported to Brazil, where they were enslaved to sustain the economy.

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  Indigenous Slavery in Brazil: Motives, Obstacles, and Laws

  Indigenous labor was widely used in the early stages of Brazil's colonization and persisted in various regions even after successive laws prohibited it.

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  The U.S. After Independence: Constitution, Washington & Adams

  After achieving independence, the U.S. drafted a constitution, established governmental institutions, and was ruled by presidents George Washington and John Adams.

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  American Revolution: Causes, Battles and Timeline

  In 1776, the United States became an independent country following several years of discontent with British colonial rule.

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  Brazilian Economy in the Colonial Period

  The economy of Colonial Brazil was characterized by the predominance of sugar and mining, along with some other less relevant activities.

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  French Revolution: Summary, Causes & Phases

  The French Revolution was the process that began with a challenge to the rule of Louis XVI and ended with Napoleon Bonaparte’s rise to power.