18th Century

Viceroyalties, Audiencias, and Cabildos in Spanish America
Spanish America before the Bourbon reforms was governed through layered institutions that made royal power depend on negotiation.

Estates-General of 1789: Why an Old Assembly Became a Political Rupture
The Estates-General of 1789 turned France’s fiscal crisis into a dispute over representation and national sovereignty.

Colonial Brazil (1500-1822): Politics, Economy and Society
For three centuries, Brazil was ruled by Portugal under a harsh colonial system whose practices continued long after independence.

The Life of African Slaves in Brazil: Violence and Resistance
Africans and their descendants lived in subjugation in Brazil, but they resisted it and left a legacy in Brazilian society.

African Slave Trade to Brazil: Reasons, Operation, and End
For many centuries, millions of Africans were transported to Brazil, where they were enslaved to sustain the economy.

Indigenous Slavery in Brazil: Motives, Obstacles, and Laws
Indigenous labor was widely used in the early stages of Brazil's colonization and persisted in various regions even after successive laws prohibited it.

The U.S. After Independence: Constitution, Washington & Adams
After achieving independence, the U.S. drafted a constitution, established governmental institutions, and was ruled by presidents George Washington and John Adams.

American Revolution: Causes, Battles and Timeline
In 1776, the United States became an independent country following several years of discontent with British colonial rule.

Brazilian Economy in the Colonial Period
The economy of Colonial Brazil was characterized by the predominance of sugar and mining, along with some other less relevant activities.

French Revolution: Summary, Causes & Phases
The French Revolution was the process that began with a challenge to the rule of Louis XVI and ended with Napoleon Bonaparte’s rise to power.