18th Century
Tupac Amaru II Rebellion: Causes, Course and Consequences
The Andean uprising began in fiscal and labor abuses, invoked Inca memory, and reshaped Peru’s politics before independence.
Cotton, India and the Atlantic in the British Industrial Revolution
Cotton linked British factories, Indian textiles, Atlantic slavery and imperial markets during the Industrial Revolution.
Seven Years’ War: Causes, Fronts and Consequences
The Seven Years’ War was a global conflict that pitted Britain and Prussia against France, Austria and their allies, reshaping colonial empires and Europe’s balance of power.
Why the Industrial Revolution began in England
In England, cotton mechanization advanced earlier when manufacturers could sell cheaper cloth, buy low-cost fuel, and finance machinery under legal protection.
Haitian Revolution: Slavery and Independence
The Haitian Revolution destroyed slavery in Saint-Domingue, defeated French reconquest, and reshaped Atlantic politics.
Creoles and Peninsulares: Imperial Hierarchy
Creoles and peninsulares formed rival Spanish American elites whose hierarchy shaped colonial rule and independence politics.
Viceroyalties, Audiencias, and Cabildos in Spanish America
Spanish America before the Bourbon reforms was governed through layered institutions that made royal power depend on negotiation.
Estates-General of 1789: Third Estate, Voting, and National Assembly
The Estates-General of 1789 turned France’s fiscal crisis into a dispute over voting, representation, the Third Estate, and national sovereignty.
Colonial Brazil (1500-1822): Politics, Economy and Society
For three centuries, Brazil was ruled by Portugal under a harsh colonial system whose practices continued long after independence.
African Slaves in Brazil: Violence and Resistance
Africans and their descendants lived in subjugation in Brazil, but they resisted it and left a legacy in Brazilian society.
African Slave Trade to Brazil: Causes, Operation, and End
From the 1500s to 1850, the Atlantic slave trade carried millions of Africans to Brazil and sustained colonial slavery.
Indigenous Slavery in Brazil: Motives, Obstacles, and Laws
Indigenous labor was widely used in the early stages of Brazil’s colonization and persisted in various regions even after successive laws prohibited it.
U.S. After Independence: Constitution and Presidents
After achieving independence, the U.S. drafted a constitution, established governmental institutions, and was ruled by presidents George Washington and John Adams.
American Revolution: Causes, War of Independence, and Timeline
The American Revolution turned colonial resistance to British taxes and imperial control into a war for independence, ending with recognition of the United States in 1783.
Brazilian Economy in the Colonial Period
The economy of Colonial Brazil was characterized by the predominance of sugar and mining, along with some other less relevant activities.
French Revolution: Causes, Timeline, Republic, and Napoleon
The French Revolution (1789-1799) overthrew absolute monarchy, created a republic, radicalized mass politics, and ended with Napoleon Bonaparte’s rise.