African Slave Trade to Brazil: Reasons, Operation, and End

The slave trade was the system of capture, transport, and sale of enslaved Africans to Brazil, from the 16th to the 19th century. Its origins date back to the Portuguese trading posts in Africa, established in the 15th century, where the Lusitanians already traded gold, ivory, and slaves. In Brazil, this trade gained great importance with the advance of sugarcane farming and the growing difficulty in enslaving Indigenous peoples . The trade operated through agreements between European merchants and African chiefs, who supplied captives captured in local wars in exchange for manufactured goods. The enslaved were transported under inhumane conditions and sold in Brazilian markets, forming the basis of the colonial economy . The trade was only effectively banned in 1850, with the Eusébio de Queirós Law, following pressure from Great Britain and Brazilian abolitionists, foreshadowing the end of slavery itself in Brazil.

Summary

• The Portuguese were already engaged in the African slave trade before the colonization of Brazil.
• In Brazil, Africans became an alternative to Indigenous enslavement, as they were more numerous, already had experience with commercial agriculture and tribal slavery, and were not protected by the church.
• Captives were captured by other Africans and sold to Europeans at trading posts on the African coast in exchange for manufactured goods.
• They were transported to Brazil in slave ships under precarious conditions: overcrowding, hunger, disease, and violence, which led to a high mortality rate during the journey.
• In Brazil, Africans were prepared for sale using strategies to hide the poor health conditions experienced during the voyage, and were sold at public auctions taxed by the government.
• Slave buyers preferred to acquire young men, while few women were trafficked, as they held relevant social roles in Africa.
• The slave trade sustained the Brazilian economy for several centuries, enriching traders, owners, government authorities, and ultimately, the Portuguese Crown itself.
• The end of the trade began to be debated under British pressure, in treaties of 1810 (with Portugal) and 1827 (with independent Brazil).
• However, the slave trade to Brazil was only extinguished with the Eusébio de Queirós Law of 1850, which foreshadowed the end of slavery itself.

The reasons for enslaving Black Africans

The Portuguese had contact with African slavery even before arriving in Brazil. Since the 15th century, Lusitanian explorers established trading posts along the coast of Africa. From these fortified commercial posts, the Portuguese obtained gold, ivory, and slaves as well. These enslaved people were used both in Europe and in Portugal’s Atlantic islands, where sugarcane was planted: Madeira Island, Azores, Cape Verde, and São Tomé. In other words, the Portuguese already knew the skills of Africans and the potential profit if they were utilized.

In Portuguese America, the option for African labor gained strength as obstacles to Indigenous enslavement increased. Gradually, compulsory labor in the colony shifted from Indigenous to African, for several reasons. Among the reasons pointed out by historians for this transition are:

• The greater supply of African captives: Africa, with numerous societies and conflicts, offered an abundant contingent of labor. Unlike the Indigenous people in Brazil, who became scarce with the advance of colonization, there were always new African groups available.
• Africans’ familiarity with slavery: Many African peoples already knew forms of slavery. Generally, societies on the continent adopted the principle that people defeated in wars or who failed to pay their debts could be enslaved. However, there were some differences between slavery in Africa and that introduced by Europeans. Africans did not consider slavery a mercantile and racist practice, nor did they regard slaves as mere lifetime commodities. In fact, in African civilizations, slaves often integrated into the community they belonged to, and had rights and opportunities for social advancement.
• The absence of religious protection: Unlike Indigenous peoples, who had some protection from the Catholic Church, Africans were not considered subjects of the King of Portugal. They came from outside the Empire and, in general, had already been enslaved before arriving in America. Thus, there were no legal or moral limitations preventing their mass enslavement. To the European mentality of the time, the African was a “commodity” of legitimate trade, blessed by the Church after their forced catechization.
• Experience with commercial agriculture: Colonists believed that Africans would be better suited for heavy labor in the tropics than Indigenous people. They held an extremely prejudiced view of Indigenous people, considering them lazy, as they adopted a communal conception of agriculture and prioritized subsistence production. Africans, in turn, came from agricultural and pastoral societies. Therefore, they had experience with intensive agriculture and were considered stronger. This stereotype held some truth, as many Africans were skilled and apparently resisted certain tropical diseases better than the local Indigenous populations.
• The profitability of the Atlantic slave trade: The slave trade was widely profitable for everyone involved in its commercial chain. Portuguese and Spanish traders, Brazilian merchants, metropolitan authorities, and even African leaders profited from the sale of enslaved people. In other words, there were powerful economic interests sustaining the continuous importation of captives. This activity became a major international business, integrated into the mercantilist system .

According to historical records, the first Africans to arrive in Brazil landed around 1530 and 1535, brought by colonizing expeditions. However, it was with the expansion of sugar production, especially after the founding of Salvador in 1549, that the slave trade gained volume. By the end of the 16th century, a regular route of slave ships already existed, departing from the African coast to the captaincies of Bahia, Pernambuco, and Rio de Janeiro.

The capture of slaves in Africa

For the most part, the perception that Europeans personally hunted slaves within the African continent is wrong. As historiography emphasizes, until the era of Imperialism, the Portuguese rarely ventured beyond the African coast. It was usual for enslaved Africans to be captured by other Africans. Local kingdoms and tribal chiefs frequently warred among themselves and acquired prisoners of war, who were sold to European traders on the coast. In exchange for slaves, the Portuguese supplied products such as textiles, mirrors, rum, firearms, gunpowder, and metals. This created a tragic collaboration between European merchants and African elites, which sustained the slave trade for centuries.

After being captured, the captives faced long marches tied together in groups to the embarkation ports. They were destined for coastal trading posts, such as those in Luanda, Benguela, Ajudá, and the Gold Coast (Costa da Mina).

At the embarkation ports, the slaves waited for the buyers’ slave ships in depots where they suffered from abuse, hunger, and disease. Women and men had slightly distinct fates. In African societies, women held important roles, and thanks to this social dynamic, most Africans sold abroad were men. Thus, a surplus of men over women was formed – something that would later also influence the social structure in Portuguese America.

Intermediaries known as “comissários” (commissioners) or “Atlantic traders” negotiated batches of slaves with local suppliers and the captains of the slave ships. These traders determined prices, payment methods, and the composition of the ships’ cargoes. Interestingly, in Brazil, large landowners preferred to buy slaves of varied ethnic origins to reduce the chance that captives from the same culture would unite and conspire against their masters. Traders, on the other hand, preferred to transport entire ships with captives from a single region, due to the ease of acquisition and logistics. The fact that the traders’ preferences generally prevailed proves the central role they played in defining how the slave trade would function.

The transatlantic trade

Contrary to what is often assumed, the slave trade did not function exactly in a “triangular trade” scheme. It is often said that the same ships carried manufactured goods to Africa, where they exchanged them for slaves destined for America, who produced sugar and cotton to be bought by Europeans who produced the goods destined for Africa. In reality, this was uncommon. Slave ships were specialized in transporting human captives and generally did not carry other types of cargo. In the case of Brazilian sugar, for example, transport was usually carried out by Dutch or English merchants. Thus, although a triangular commercial circuit linking America, Africa, and Europe existed, it was carried out by completely different vessels.

Inside the slave ships, the enslaved faced a terrifying journey to the Americas. Conditions aboard were inhumane: captives were packed into cramped holds, often lying on top of each other, with space so tight they could barely move. Hygiene was minimal, as the traders’ sole objective was to keep the slaves alive until reaching the destination. Water and food, for example, were rationed because they did not want to waste valuable cargo space on the ships. Initially, mortality rates during the voyage were extremely high, but over time, traders adopted some protocols to maximize the survival of the Africans. Some of these measures included giving captives periodic sunbaths to reduce diseases caused by confinement, vaccinating crew members against diseases to prevent onboard outbreaks, and separating slaves by gender during the voyage to lessen tensions and sexual abuse among them. Still, the crossing lasted from 6 to 10 weeks and exacted a terrible price in lives.

It is estimated that, on average, 10% to 20% of slaves died during the transatlantic journey. Causes ranged from contagious diseases (such as dysentery, smallpox, and scurvy), through intestinal problems due to poor diet, to onboard revolts and suicides. Without a doubt, many captives preferred death to continuing in those conditions. On some ships, there was even the macabre custom of installing nets around the deck to prevent desperate slaves from throwing themselves into the sea. The horrors of the transatlantic African slave trade were denounced, for example, by the Brazilian abolitionist poet Castro Alves, in the famous poem O Navio Negreiro (The Slave Ship) (1868).

The arrival of Africans in Brazil

Slaves who survived the Atlantic crossing disembarked at Brazilian ports, where they underwent inspection and registration by colonial authorities. The government collected taxes per head of imported slave, recording the entry of each batch. Soon after, the captives were prepared for sale in local markets. Traders and merchants would “make up” the slaves to try to conceal the debilitating effects of the voyage. As soon as the Africans arrived in Brazil, they received slightly better food, baths with palm oil to make their skin attractive, and dyes to hide white hair and make them look younger. Additionally, they were given stimulants to make them appear lively when being auctioned. There was a special concern to combat “banzo” or “saudade sickness”: a deep melancholy and depression that afflicted many newly arrived Africans, homesick for their land. Some captives refused to eat or became completely dejected, which could hinder their sale to Brazilian owners.

Once prepared, the Africans were displayed in public squares or auction houses. In these places, the main buyers were sugar mill owners, miners, and urban merchants. They examined the captives physically, just as is done with animals: evaluating age, teeth, muscles, and even scar marks, because they could indicate punishment for previous insubordination. The enslaved were sold individually or in lots, according to the buyer’s preference and the seller’s organization. Prices varied according to the era, ethnic origin, age, and sex. In general, young adult men were the most valued, being seen as the ideal labor force for plantations. Children and the elderly were worth less, and women had a medium price, unless they were young and of reproductive age (as they could bear slave children, increasing the master’s stock). Records indicate that in the 18th century, an adult slave cost around 100,000 to 200,000 réis – an amount equivalent to the price of dozens of cattle, for example. It was an expensive investment, comparable to the value of a small farm. Therefore, only members of the wealthy elite owned many slaves; small proprietors sometimes had 1 or 2 to help with tasks.

The economic importance of the slave trade

It is estimated that about 5 million Africans were brought to Brazil through the slave trade, representing approximately 40% of all captives sent to the Americas during the period of slavery. This is the largest contingent received by a single country. Colonial and imperial Brazil thus became the main destination of the transatlantic trade, surpassing all British, French, Spanish, or other colonies in the volume of enslaved Africans. This colossal number illustrates the extreme dependence of the Brazilian economy on slave labor.

Over the centuries, the areas supplying slaves varied according to wars and commercial interests. However, we can highlight some constants. The coast of West-Central Africa (Congo-Angola) was the largest continuous source of slaves, especially in the period 1580-1640 and then from 1650 until the 19th century. Portugal controlled Angola and was also sovereign over Mozambique, but the Angolan route was more accessible to Brazil. The region of West Africa, notably the Gulf of Benin and the Gold Coast (Costa da Mina, encompassing present-day Nigeria, Benin, Togo, and Ghana), also contributed a large number of captives, mainly in the 18th century, when the trade to Bahia intensified. From the late 18th century, Mozambique (Southeast Africa) became an important supply zone, especially after 1815, when the Congress of Vienna banned the slave trade in the North Atlantic. Thus, slaves of Bantu origin (Angola, Congo, Mozambique) and Sudanese origin (Gold Coast, Gulf of Guinea) formed the two large African groups in Brazil. It is calculated that Angola and Congo accounted for about half or more of all enslaved Africans brought to Brazil.

For hundreds of years, slave ships crossed the Atlantic ceaselessly. The academic Pierre Verger called this incessant movement the “ flux and reflux ” between Brazil and Africa. His intention was to emphasize that the ships were never idle — they were always carrying cargo, whether slaves to America, or goods and silver coins to Africa and Europe.

The slave trade was not only a source of labor but also a profitable business in itself. In certain periods, it even became the main branch of Brazil’s foreign trade, alongside sugar or coffee. Slave ships departed loaded with low-cost goods and returned with human “pieces” that were sold at high prices. The Portuguese Crown profited by collecting taxes per imported slave; governors and colonial authorities frequently got involved in the business; and many merchants in Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, and Recife grew rich as professional slavers. In the 18th century, a wealthy class of Luso-Brazilian traders formed, some of whom rose socially by buying titles of nobility. Therefore, while for the enslaved the trade meant atrocious suffering, for a segment of businessmen it meant prosperity and prestige.

Not by chance, Portugal was one of the most reluctant countries to abolish the slave trade. Even in the 19th century, when British pressure against the trade increased, Brazilian elites resisted because they knew their economy depended on the continuous arrival of slaves to maintain and expand plantations.

The end of the slave trade to Brazil

In the first half of the 19th century, the slave trade to Brazil reached historic peaks, even with international campaigns to abolish it. It is estimated that more than 1.5 million slaves entered during this period, about a third of the total for the entire transatlantic era, driven by the expansion of Brazilian agriculture.

In 1810, Portugal and England signed a treaty that provided, in its article 10, a vague promise to abolish the slave trade. In that context, the Portuguese depended on the English to confront Napoleonic France, and this was one of England’s demands after it carried out the transfer of the Lusitanian court to Brazil, fleeing from Napoleon ‘s troops. However, the Portuguese had no interest whatsoever in fulfilling this promise, and the trade continued at full steam.

In 1827, after Brazil’s independence, a new treaty was signed providing a real commitment to ending the trade. To comply with this treaty, the Brazilian government enacted the Feijó Law in 1831, which provided for the complete prohibition of the landing of enslaved Africans in the country. Once again, however, there was no social will to enforce the law, meaning it never left the paper. In Brazilian slang, it became a law solely “for the English to see” (para inglês ver), without any practical effect.

It was only from 1850, with the approval of the Eusébio de Queirós Law, that the Atlantic trade was effectively repressed by the Brazilian imperial government. This law, responding both to British pressure and internal factors, began treating the trade as piracy, authorizing the Navy to seize slave ships. Unlike the previous law of 1831, the 1850 law was enforced, marking the end of the legal importation of slaves. These were the main consequences of the prohibition of the slave trade for Brazil:

• The increase in the domestic slave trade: The price of slaves rose because, although no longer imported, they were still required by landowners. Declining provinces, such as Maranhão and Pernambuco (which had a surplus of slaves due to the stagnation of the sugarcane economy), began selling slaves to areas where coffee cultivation was expanding in the Southeast (Paraíba Valley, Western São Paulo). The imperial government, concerned about avoiding an excessive concentration of slaves in the hands of coffee growers near the country’s capital, even heavily taxed the interprovincial trade to discourage the migration of captives. Still, in the 1850s and 1860s, there was intense movement of slaves from the North and Northeast to the Southeast.
• The intensification of the debate on the abolition of slavery: Without a continuous replacement of labor, the property-owning class began to face the prospect of the gradual extinction of slavery. This happened because the slave population tended to decrease over time, due to low birth rates and high mortality rates. Despite this, slavery still persisted for another 38 years in Brazil, until it was finally abolished with the Golden Law (Lei Áurea), decreed by Princess Isabel in 1888.

Conclusion

The slave trade was a complex undertaking, involving various stages and agents — from enslavement in Africa and transport across the Atlantic, to the sale of Africans on Brazilian soil. It was an activity of gigantic proportions, connecting America, Africa, and Europe. On one hand, it is true that it provided colonial and imperial Brazil with a workforce to produce sugar, tobacco, gold, coffee, and other products on a global scale. On the other hand, it also meant the forced displacement and compulsory labor of millions of Africans, who had their lives brutally interrupted or transformed forever. Indeed, the prohibition of the trade and the subsequent abolition of slavery were crucial steps to gradually guarantee the humanity of Africans and, more recently, respect for the legacy they left to the Portuguese language and Brazilian society.