19th Century
Haitian Revolution: Slavery, Independence, and the Atlantic World
The Haitian Revolution destroyed slavery in Saint-Domingue, defeated French reconquest, and reshaped Atlantic politics.
Meiji Restoration: Summary, Causes & Consequences
The Meiji Restoration was the process that began with a challenge to Tokugawa rule and ended with Japan’s rise as an industrial imperial power.
Biography of Camillo Cavour (1810-1861): Italian Unification and Realpolitik
Camillo Cavour was the pragmatic Piedmontese statesman whose diplomacy, economic modernization, and alliances helped make Italian unification possible.
Colonial Brazil (1500-1822): Politics, Economy and Society
For three centuries, Brazil was ruled by Portugal under a harsh colonial system whose practices continued long after independence.
Biography of Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)
Garibaldi was a major leader of the unification of Italy and he had an adventurous and tumultuous personal life.
Gilded Age (1877-1897): Summary, Characteristics, Presidencies
During the Gilded Age, the United States experienced unprecedented growth and urbanization, but corruption and social issues prevailed.
U.S. History: Reconstruction Era (1865-1877)
After the Civil War, African Americans had to deal with major civil rights struggles amid growing racial tensions in the U.S.
The Life of African Slaves in Brazil: Violence and Resistance
Africans and their descendants lived in subjugation in Brazil, but they resisted it and left a legacy in Brazilian society.
African Slave Trade to Brazil: Reasons, Operation, and End
For many centuries, millions of Africans were transported to Brazil, where they were enslaved to sustain the economy.
American Civil War (1861-1865): Summary, Causes, Aftermath
The war began over the status of slavery in the U.S. and led to its abolition by Abraham Lincoln. However, racism persisted in the country.
U.S. History: From Jackson to Lincoln (1829-1861)
Before the Civil War, the United States experienced profound socioeconomic changes, a religious revival, a significant expansion of its territory.
U.S. History: From Jefferson to Jackson (1801-1829)
In the first half of the 19th century, the United States expanded its territory and engaged in international conflicts.
The 19th Century Revolutions according to Hobsbawm
In the book “Age of Revolution,” Eric Hobsbawm discusses the French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, and other European uprisings in the 19th century.
Imperialism: Definition, Causes, and Consequences in Africa and Asia
Definition, causes, and consequences of imperialism in Africa and Asia, from European rivalries to colonization and resistance.
Industrial Revolutions: Summary, Causes, Consequences & Inventions
Since the 19th century, beginning in Britain, a series of inventions have profoundly revolutionized the world economy.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 7 – A Political Doomsday Machine
This chapter discusses the long-term tensions between Germany, Russia, Great Britain and France that led to World War I.
Unification of Germany: Origins, Wars & Bismarck’s Role
Germany was created from wars that unified various small kingdoms and two larger ones: Austria and Prussia.
Brazilian Economy in the First Republic
During the First Republic, Brazil experienced significant economic transformations but remained dependent on coffee exports.
Biography of Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
Napoleon was a French general who became Consul, then Emperor. He ruled over Europe for many years until his final defeat and exile.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 6 – Realpolitik Turns on Itself
This chapter discusses the initiatives of Bismarck’s Germany to influence the balance of power in 19th-century Europe.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 5 – Two Revolutionaries
This chapter discusses the roles of Napoleon III and Otto von Bismarck in shaping France and Germany, respectively.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 4 – The Concert of Europe
This chapter discusses European politics after the Napoleonic Era, when five countries began to share power in the continent.
Brazilian Economy in the Empire: Regional Highlights
From 1822 until 1889, Brazil’s economy was characterized by great regional diversity: agriculture, mining, and industries.
Brazilian Economy in the Colonial Period
The economy of Colonial Brazil was characterized by the predominance of sugar and mining, along with some other less relevant activities.
Unification of Italy: Summary, Origins, Phases
The Risorgimento made Italy become an independent country thanks to revolutionaries like Garibaldi and moderates like Cavour.
Revolutions of 1848: What Was the Springtime of the Peoples?
The Revolutions of 1848 were a Europe-wide wave of liberal, nationalist, and social uprisings known as the Springtime of the Peoples.
Liberal Revolutions of the 1830s in Europe
In the 1830s, France got itself a bourgeois king, the Belgians got their independence, and Italian, German and Pole liberals were defeated.
Liberal Revolutions of the 1820s in Europe
In the 1820s, liberals attempted to seize power in Spain, a civil war occurred in Portugal, and the Greek got their independence.
Liberal Revolutions in 19th-Century Europe: 1820, 1830 and 1848
The liberal revolutions in 19th-century Europe challenged the Vienna order in 1820, 1830 and 1848 with constitutional demands.
Concert of Europe: Great-Power Diplomacy After 1815
The Concert of Europe used alliances, congresses and crisis diplomacy to manage Europe after Napoleon.
Congress of Vienna: Participants, Principles & Decisions
In the Congress of Vienna, European powers reshaped the continent’s map and politics after the Napoleonic Era.
Napoleonic Era: Meaning, Timeline, Phases & Consequences
The Napoleonic Era (1799-1815) reshaped France and Europe through reform, empire, war and Napoleon’s defeat.