19th Century

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  Colonial Brazil (1500-1822): Politics, Economy and Society

  For three centuries, Brazil was ruled by Portugal under a harsh colonial system whose practices continued long after independence.

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  Biography of Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)

  Garibaldi was a major leader of the unification of Italy and he had an adventurous and tumultuous personal life.

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  Gilded Age (1877-1897): Summary, Characteristics, Presidencies

  During the Gilded Age, the United States experienced unprecedented growth and urbanization, but corruption and social issues prevailed.

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  U.S. History: Reconstruction Era (1865-1877)

  After the Civil War, African Americans had to deal with major civil rights struggles amid growing racial tensions in the U.S.

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  The Life of African Slaves in Brazil: Violence and Resistance

  Africans and their descendants lived in subjugation in Brazil, but they resisted it and left a legacy in Brazilian society.

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  African Slave Trade to Brazil: Reasons, Operation, and End

  For many centuries, millions of Africans were transported to Brazil, where they were enslaved to sustain the economy.

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  American Civil War (1861-1865): Summary, Causes, Aftermath

  The war began over the status of slavery in the U.S. and led to its abolition by Abraham Lincoln. However, racism persisted in the country.

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  U.S. History: From Jackson to Lincoln (1829-1861)

  Before the Civil War, the United States experienced profound socioeconomic changes, a religious revival, a significant expansion of its territory.

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  U.S. History: From Jefferson to Jackson (1801-1829)

  In the first half of the 19th century, the United States expanded its territory and engaged in international conflicts.

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  The 19th Century Revolutions according to Hobsbawm

  In the book “Age of Revolution,” Eric Hobsbawm discusses the French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, and other European uprisings in the 19th century.

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  Imperialism: Definition, Causes and Effects in Africa and Asia

  Imperialism was the expansion of European power over other regions, especially Africa and Asia, through conquest, economic control and political pressure.

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  Industrial Revolutions: Summary, Causes, Consequences & Inventions

  Since the 19th century, beginning in Britain, a series of inventions have profoundly revolutionized the world economy.

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  Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 7 – A Political Doomsday Machine

  This chapter discusses the long-term tensions between Germany, Russia, Great Britain and France that led to World War I.

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  Unification of Germany: Origins, Wars & Bismarck’s Role

  Germany was created from wars that unified various small kingdoms and two larger ones: Austria and Prussia.

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  Brazilian Economy in the First Republic

  During the First Republic, Brazil experienced significant economic transformations but remained dependent on coffee exports.

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  Biography of Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)

  Napoleon was a French general who became Consul, then Emperor. He ruled over Europe for many years until his final defeat and exile.

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  Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 6 – Realpolitik Turns on Itself

  This chapter discusses the initiatives of Bismarck’s Germany to influence the balance of power in 19th-century Europe.

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  Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 5 – Two Revolutionaries

  This chapter discusses the roles of Napoleon III and Otto von Bismarck in shaping France and Germany, respectively.

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  Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 4 – The Concert of Europe

  This chapter discusses European politics after the Napoleonic Era, when five countries began to share power in the continent.

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  Brazilian Economy in the Empire: Regional Highlights

  From 1822 until 1889, Brazil’s economy was characterized by great regional diversity: agriculture, mining, and industries.

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  Brazilian Economy in the Colonial Period

  The economy of Colonial Brazil was characterized by the predominance of sugar and mining, along with some other less relevant activities.

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  Unification of Italy: Summary, Origins, Phases

  The Risorgimento made Italy become an independent country thanks to revolutionaries like Garibaldi and moderates like Cavour.

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  Revolutions of 1848: Springtime of the Peoples

  In 1848, Europeans from various countries would rebel simultaneously, helping to usher in a new era of political liberalism.

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  Liberal Revolutions of the 1830s in Europe

  In the 1830s, France got itself a bourgeois king, the Belgians got their independence, and Italian, German and Pole liberals were defeated.

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  Liberal Revolutions of the 1820s in Europe

  In the 1820s, liberals attempted to seize power in Spain, a civil war occurred in Portugal, and the Greek got their independence.

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  Liberal Revolutions in 19th-Century Europe: 1820, 1830 and 1848

  A clear summary of the liberal revolutions that challenged the Concert of Europe in the 1820s, 1830s and 1848.

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  Concert of Europe: Alliances, Congresses & Wars

  The Concert of Europe was a system of great-power politics in which five countries dominated European affairs from 1815 to 1871.

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  Congress of Vienna: Participants, Principles & Decisions

  In the Congress of Vienna, European powers reshaped the continent's map and politics after the Napoleonic Era.

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  Napoleonic Era: Summary, Phases & Consequences

  For more than one decade, Napoleon reigned over France and dominated Europe, but he was ultimately defeated.