Historia Mundum

Gilded Age (1877-1897): Summary, Characteristics, Presidencies

A wide, horizontal oil painting bathed in warm golden light depicts a tranquil yet evocative small town street scene from the Gilded Age, with a straight, unpaved dirt road running from the foreground to a vanishing point at the horizon where a tall church steeple rises against a sky streaked with soft pastels; on both sides of the road stand simple two-story wooden storefronts clad in muted earth tones—warm ochres, burnt siennas, and soft umbers—each building featuring clapboard siding, rectangular windows with dark frames, and gently sloping roofs with overhanging eaves; the angled light casts elongated, soft-edged shadows along the façades, accentuating the texture of weathered wood and highlighting decorative cornices under the roofs; townspeople, rendered with careful, realistic brushstrokes, dot the sidewalks and the street: men wear dark brimmed hats—some bowlers, some wider-brimmed felt hats—and high-collared shirts beneath fitted waistcoats, their trousers tapering to boots caked with dust; women stand or walk singly or in pairs wearing long dresses with fitted bodices and full skirts that graze the ground, some with bonnets tying beneath their chins and others with shawls draped over their shoulders; a young child peeks around a building corner at right, while two women near the foreground converse quietly, one hand lifted as though emphasizing a point; a chestnut brown horse, tethered to a sturdy wooden hitching post on the right sidewalk, stands patiently with a glossy coat that catches the light, and a wooden water trough sits nearby, its surface reflecting the warm glow of the sky; two horse-drawn carriages occupy the center of the street—the closer one an open-top buggy painted deep black with polished wood wheels and a driver in a dark frock coat and bowler hat holding taut reins; further back a closed carriage with curtained windows rolls slowly toward the church steeple; along the sidewalks unpainted wooden posts mark where additional horses might be tied, and small wooden signs above doorways—though too small to read—hint at general stores, saloons, and other businesses; the dirt road itself is textured with ruts and faint wheel tracks, rendered in shades of ochre and brown, and the painter’s brushwork captures the roughness of the earth and the soft haze of dust in the air; overhead, the sky transitions from pale yellow at the horizon to gentle lavender and blue higher up, with sparse, elongated cloud forms that reflect the same amber hue, complementing the overall palette; the air seems still and quiet, save for a few figures stationed at doorways or strolling slowly, evoking a moment of everyday life in an American frontier town as the day begins or ends in warm, enveloping light.
A typical American town during the Gilded Age. © CS Media.

The Gilded Age is a phrase coined by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner. It refers to the period from the 1870s to the early 1900s in American History, an era of rapid economic growth, industrialization, and significant technological advancement, which transformed the United States into a leading industrial power. This period, however, was also marked by stark contrasts. While some people accumulated immense wealth, others faced severe poverty. In addition, there was significant social upheaval and pervasive political corruption, suggesting that the era’s prosperity was a thin veneer over deeper societal issues. The Gilded Age laid much of the groundwork for modern America. It shaped its economic structures, urban landscapes, and social dynamics, and prompted reform movements that would gain greater traction in the subsequent Progressive Era.

Summary

  • During the Gilded Age, the United States experienced massive growth in industry and national wealth, but economic inequality and difficult labor conditions prevailed.
  • Rapid urbanization led to overcrowded cities and social problems, such as xenophobia against immigrants who came to work in the U.S..
  • Widespread political corruption and the influence of big business over politics spurred the rise of reform movements, including labor unions.
  • President Hayes ended the Reconstruction Era, championed civil service reform, and dealt with economic debates and the Great Railroad Strike of 1877.
  • President Garfield’s brief term was marked by party divisions, and his assassination fueled public demand for civil service reform.
  • President Arthur surprisingly signed the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act and initiated modernization of the U.S. Navy.
  • President Cleveland’s first term emphasized fiscal conservatism, tariff reduction, and railroad regulation with the Interstate Commerce Act.
  • President Harrison’s administration passed the McKinley Tariff, a protectionist measure, and the Sherman Antitrust Act, yet he faced growing Populist discontent.
  • Cleveland’s second term grappled with the severe Panic of 1893 and major labor unrest, notably the Pullman Strike.
  • The 1896 election of William McKinley, focused on economic policy and with the support of big business, marked the end of the Gilded Age.

Characteristics of the Gilded Age

The Gilded Age was characterized by an unparalleled surge in industrialization, as the nation shifted from a primarily agrarian society to one dominated by manufacturing and factory production. This transformation was fueled by abundant natural resources, a growing labor force, and numerous technological innovations, such as the expansion of railroads, which connected the country and facilitated the movement of goods and people. Mechanization became widespread, leading to mass production, which increased output and lowered prices but also resulted in often dangerous and monotonous factory work.

A defining feature of this era was the dramatic economic inequality. Industrialists and financiers, sometimes referred to as “captains of industry” or “robber barons,” amassed enormous fortunes by creating monopolies and trusts in key sectors like oil, steel, and railroads. Figures such as John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, and J.P. Morgan became symbols of this immense wealth. While some, like Carnegie, advocated a “Gospel of Wealth,” suggesting the rich had a responsibility to use their fortunes for the public good, this philanthropy often coexisted with exploitative business practices, including low wages and harsh working conditions for the majority. The gap between the affluent and the working class was vast, with many families living below the poverty line despite overall economic growth.

Urbanization accelerated rapidly as people moved from rural areas and foreign countries to cities in search of employment. This led to overcrowded urban centers, the proliferation of tenement housing, and challenges related to sanitation, public health, and crime. Immigration reached new heights, with millions arriving, primarily from Europe, providing a large labor pool for factories but also facing nativism and discrimination. Social structures were further altered by the changing roles of women, who increasingly entered the workforce and sought higher education, and by the experiences of Black Americans navigating the post-Reconstruction landscape.

Political corruption was rampant during the Gilded Age, with business interests often exerting undue influence on government at local, state, and federal levels. The spoils system, where political loyalty was rewarded with government positions, contributed to inefficiency and graft, prompting calls for civil service reform. In response to these conditions, various reform movements began to take shape. Labor unions grew in strength, advocating for better wages, shorter hours, and safer working environments, though they often faced staunch opposition from businesses and government intervention in strikes. Journalists played a role in exposing societal problems, helping to build momentum for the reforms that would characterize the Progressive Era. Prevailing social and cultural ideas included Social Darwinism, which applied concepts of natural selection to society and business, and was often used to justify wealth inequality, alongside emerging critiques of laissez-faire capitalism. The literature and art of the period, particularly realism, often depicted the social realities and inequalities of the time.

A satirical, full-color lithograph set inside a richly detailed Senate chamber shows a semicircular arrangement of ornate mahogany desks with carved legs and small brass reading lamps, each occupied by a diminutive U.S. senator dressed in 1880s formal attire—dark tailcoats, starched white collars, bow ties or cravats, and a few sporting pince-nez spectacles—while towering behind them stand nine obese, anthropomorphic figures labeled as trusts and monopolies, each wearing a top hat or bowler hat and bearing exaggerated, bulbous bellies painted with identifying text; from left to right, the trusts include a “Salt Trust” figure wearing a gray top hat whose rotund torso strains against his dusty brown coat; next to him the “Envelope Trust” holds a stack of sealed envelopes, his bowler hat slightly askew; then the “Paper Bag Trust,” its figure’s vest burst at the abdomen, and the “Coal Trust,” whose cheeks and coat are smudged with dark gray to suggest coal dust beneath a black top hat; at the center, the “Sugar Trust” stands with a pale greenish coat and a sugar cube motif on his necktie, clutching a small sugar bowl; to its right, the “Iron Trust” is drawn as a stout man with thick arms folded over a rounded belly embossed with the words “IRON TRUST”; just beside him, the “Standard Oil Trust” is caricatured as a barrel-like figure with black hoops around his midsection and the initials “S.O.T.” on his tilted top hat; the “Copper Trust” follows, massive and colored a metallic copper tone with a heavy coin purse fused to one stubby hand; and finally the largest, most ominous “Steel Beam Trust” looms at far right, his broad gray pinstriped coat stretching over an immense belly labeled “STEEL BEAM TRUST,” leaning on a long ebony cane topped with a sculpted eagle; a smaller figure labeled “Plough & Steel Trust” stands partly hidden behind him on the extreme right; above these monopolists, a gallery doorway marked “PEOPLE’S ENTRANCE” bears a wooden sign reading “CLOSED” in bold letters, while a sign to the far right proclaims “ENTRANCE FOR MONOPOLISTS”; at the very top center is a placard reading “THIS IS A SENATE OF THE MONOPOLISTS, BY THE MONOPOLISTS AND FOR THE MONOPOLISTS”; the senators below appear overwhelmed, one near center-left leans forward, reading a document with a weary frown, another in the front slumps back pitifully in his chair, his hat off and papers scattered across his desk and the floor; the chamber’s walls are painted a pale cream tone, adorned with classical pilasters and entablatures outlined in fine brown lines; coloring is rich yet slightly subdued—flesh tones vary from dingy gray-pinks to pasty whites; coats are rendered in deep browns, blacks, muted greens, and dark crimsons; gilded metallic accents on buttons and lamps gleam softly; the overall composition underscores how corporate interests dwarf the elected officials, with the monumental size and grotesque forms of the trusts obscuring the chamber’s intended dignity and focusing attention on the collusion between moneyed power and political authority in the late 1880s.
“The Bosses of the Senate” — an illustration by Joseph Keppler criticizing the rampant corruption in U.S. politics in the 1880s. Public domain image.

Rutherford B. Hayes’s Administration (1877-1881)

Rutherford B. Hayes assumed the presidency following a highly disputed election, the resolution of which involved the Compromise of 1877. A significant political development early in his term was the formal end of Reconstruction. Hayes ordered the withdrawal of the remaining federal troops from Southern statehouses in South Carolina and Louisiana, effectively ceasing federal military enforcement of Republican state governments and civil rights for African Americans in the South. While he later made attempts to protect the rights of Southern blacks and foster a biracial Republican party in the region, these efforts were largely unsuccessful in the face of resurgent Democratic control and the eventual establishment of Jim Crow laws. Hayes did, however, resist congressional attempts to weaken federal oversight of elections.

A central theme of Hayes’s presidency was his commitment to civil service reform, aiming to replace the prevalent spoils system with a merit-based appointment process. He issued executive orders prohibiting federal officeholders from being required to make campaign contributions or participate actively in party politics. His most notable confrontation in this area was with the powerful New York Stalwart faction led by Senator Roscoe Conkling, culminating in Hayes’s removal of Chester A. Arthur from his post as Collector of the Port of New York. Although comprehensive civil service legislation was not enacted during his term, Hayes’s actions and advocacy helped build public support for the Pendleton Act, which would pass in 1883.

Economically, the Hayes administration grappled with the ongoing currency debate. The nation was still feeling the effects of the Panic of 1873, and there was significant pressure, particularly from farmers and debtors, to increase the money supply through the coinage of silver. Hayes, a supporter of the gold standard, vetoed the Bland-Allison Act of 1878, which mandated government purchase and coinage of a limited amount of silver. However, Congress overrode his veto, making it law. Despite this, his administration successfully oversaw the resumption of specie payments in 1879, allowing greenbacks to be redeemed for gold, which helped stabilize the currency and restore public confidence.

Socially, the most significant event was the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, the largest labor uprising in U.S. history to that point. Triggered by wage cuts, the strike spread rapidly across numerous states, paralyzing much of the nation’s rail traffic. At the request of state governors, Hayes deployed federal troops to several cities to restore order and protect federal property, marking a significant instance of federal intervention in a labor dispute involving a private company. While the strike was ultimately suppressed, it highlighted the growing tensions between labor and capital.

A large, sepia-toned engraving fills the scene with a tumultuous crowd of men, women, and a few children standing on a wide wooden platform before a long row of steam locomotives and freight cars that dominate the middle distance; each locomotive’s dark metal boiler and front wheels are rendered with fine crosshatching, and from the tall smokestacks of each engine billows a thick plume of white steam that obscures parts of a wooden station building behind; the station consists of several connected gabled roofs clad in horizontal planks, with a central cupola rising above the rest, and additional smaller buildings extend to the left, each bearing chimneys that release light smoke; on the right edge of the engraving a loading dock is visible, featuring a narrow staircase leading up to a small elevated platform, while the tender of one locomotive displays the letters “C. & O. R. R.” in block letters; in the foreground and center of the platform, laborers wear brimmed hats—some bowlers, some flat caps—and heavy coats over vests and shirts, their sleeves rolled up, as they spread out in clusters and appear to push against the engines or gesture toward unseen figures off-image; a woman in a dark dress and shawl stands near the front, clutching a small child’s hand as they both gaze anxiously at the crowd; another woman stands slightly apart, wearing a long dress that brushes the wooden planks and holding her skirt in one hand; small children, one near the woman’s skirt and another clutching a man’s coat, peer toward the melee; several men near center-right lift their arms as though shouting or trying to halt the oncoming train, while one man crouches to steady himself, backlit by a ribbon of light cast from the opening at the rear of the station; the wooden platform’s planks are drawn with parallel lines that recede toward the horizon, lending depth, and horizontal shading lines in the sky suggest either overcast weather or heavy steam lingering in the air; the overall effect is a charged moment of confrontation between aggrieved workers—many faces etched with desperation, anger, and resolve—and the imposing, machine-like trains that symbolize industrial power.
“Blockade of Engines at Martinsburg, West Virginia” — an engraving depicting a major event during the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. Public domain image.

In foreign policy, Hayes’s administration was relatively moderate but took some initiatives, particularly concerning Latin America and Asia. He asserted U.S. interests in the potential construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, stating that such a canal should be under American control, reflecting the Monroe Doctrine. His administration arbitrated a territorial dispute between Argentina and Paraguay. Regarding China, Hayes vetoed a bill in 1879 that would have restricted Chinese immigration, arguing it violated the Burlingame Treaty of 1868. This led to negotiations for a new treaty, concluded in 1880, which allowed for some regulation of immigration. The U.S. also signed a treaty with Samoa in 1878, granting rights to establish a naval station at Pago Pago.

James A. Garfield’s Administration (1881)

James A. Garfield’s presidency was tragically short, lasting only from March 4, 1881, until his death on September 19, 1881, following an assassination attempt on July 2. His brief tenure was immediately consumed by the deep factionalism within the Republican Party, particularly the conflict between the Stalwarts, who were staunch supporters of the spoils system and political patronage, and the Half-Breeds, who were more inclined towards civil service reform. Garfield, though attempting to balance these factions, leaned towards asserting presidential prerogative in appointments, which directly challenged powerful Stalwart leaders like Senator Roscoe Conkling of New York.

A key event illustrating this challenge to political machines was Garfield’s nomination of William H. Robertson, an enemy of Conkling, to the powerful post of Collector of the Port of New York. This move was a direct affront to Conkling, who expected to control federal appointments in his state. When Garfield refused to withdraw the nomination, Conkling and his fellow New York Senator, Thomas C. Platt, resigned from the Senate in protest, hoping to be re-elected by the New York legislature as a show of strength against the president. This high-stakes political battle dominated headlines and intensified the animosity between the party factions.

It was in this supercharged political atmosphere that Charles Guiteau, a disgruntled and mentally unstable lawyer who had unsuccessfully sought a position in the government, assassinated President Garfield. Guiteau believed he deserved an appointment for his perceived contributions to Garfield’s election and reportedly declared, “I am a Stalwart and Arthur is President now,” upon his arrest, explicitly linking his actions to the factional strife and the spoils system. Garfield’s assassination shocked the nation and dramatically highlighted the destructive consequences of the patronage system, creating a strong public outcry for civil service reform.

Chester A. Arthur’s Administration (1881-1885)

Chester A. Arthur ascended to the presidency following James A. Garfield’s assassination, an event that ironically propelled a figure associated with the spoils system into a position to champion its reform. Arthur was previously the Collector of the Port of New York and a prominent Stalwart allied with Roscoe Conkling. He surprised many by supporting and signing the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act in 1883. This landmark legislation established a merit-based system for filling certain federal jobs through competitive examinations, creating the Civil Service Commission to oversee its implementation. It initially applied to about 10% of federal positions but laid the critical groundwork for dismantling the patronage system that had fueled political corruption.

Economically, Arthur’s administration contended with a significant budget surplus, largely generated by high tariff revenues. The debate over tariff policy was prominent, with Democrats generally favoring lower tariffs to reduce the surplus and consumer costs, while many Republicans, including Arthur initially, supported protectionism. Arthur called for the abolition of most excise taxes and a simplification of the tariff structure. A tariff commission appointed in 1882 recommended substantial reductions, but Congress, particularly the House Ways and Means Committee, resisted deep cuts. The resulting Tariff of 1883, often called the “Mongrel Tariff,” only modestly reduced rates on average and was widely seen as insufficient. Arthur recognized its inadequacy. Later, he directed his Secretary of State to pursue reciprocal trade agreements to amend tariffs without direct congressional battles. He also vetoed the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1882 due to its excessive spending on projects he deemed of local rather than national benefit, though Congress overrode his veto.

In foreign policy, Arthur’s administration addressed the issue of Chinese immigration. Amidst anti-Chinese sentiment, particularly in the West, Congress passed a bill proposing a 20-year ban on Chinese laborers. Arthur vetoed this, deeming it a violation of existing treaties. Subsequently, a revised law, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, was passed and signed by Arthur, imposing a 10-year ban on the immigration of Chinese laborers. He also focused on modernizing the U.S. Navy, which had fallen into obsolescence since the Civil War. Arthur advocated for and secured congressional appropriations for the construction of new steel warships, earning him the title “Father of the Steel Navy” and initiating a naval resurgence. Secretary of the Navy William E. Chandler played a key role, establishing the Naval War College and the Office of Naval Intelligence.

Socially, Arthur’s approach to civil rights was mixed. He attempted to build Republican alliances in the South by supporting movements like the Readjusters in Virginia, who advocated for increased education funding for both black and white students. However, when the Supreme Court struck down the Civil Rights Act of 1875, Arthur expressed disagreement but was unable to secure new legislation. He did intervene in the case of a Black West Point cadet, overturning a court-martial he found to be racially biased. Regarding Native American policy, he urged more funding for education and favored land allotment, though significant legislation in this area did not pass during his term. He also signed the Edmunds Act of 1882, which criminalized polygamy in Utah Territory. Despite his initial association with machine politics, Arthur’s presidency is generally viewed as competent and committed to reform in key areas.

Grover Cleveland’s First Term (1885-1889)

Grover Cleveland was the first Democrat elected president since before the Civil War. He placed a distinct emphasis on fiscal conservatism in his first term. He believed in limited government intervention in the economy and was known for his frequent use of the veto power to curb what he considered excessive or unwarranted federal spending. This was notably demonstrated in his veto of a bill to provide seed grain to drought-stricken farmers in Texas, arguing that “though the people support the Government, the Government should not support the people”. This stance reflected his opposition to federal aid for individual suffering not directly related to public service.

Another central economic policy focus for Cleveland was tariff reduction. The federal government had been running a significant budget surplus due to high protective tariffs maintained since the Civil War. Cleveland argued that these high tariffs were an unfair tax on consumers, raised the cost of living, and generated more revenue than the government needed for its economical operation. In his 1887 annual message to Congress, he devoted the entire address to the tariff issue, advocating for lower rates and the removal of duties on raw materials. This strong stance made tariff reform the dominant political issue and set the stage for the “Great Tariff Debate of 1888” during the subsequent presidential election, which he lost.

Cleveland also continued the push for civil service reform initiated by his predecessors. He sought to limit political corruption and the spoils system by appointing officials based on merit rather than solely on party affiliation, supporting the Civil Service Commission and expanding the number of federal positions covered by merit-based rules. A significant piece of regulatory legislation passed during his first term was the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. This act was a response to public outcry against monopolistic practices by railroads, such as price discrimination and pooling agreements. It required railroad rates to be “reasonable and just,” mandated the publication of shipping rates, and created the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), the first federal independent regulatory agency, to oversee the railroad industry. Cleveland supported this measure, viewing it as a necessary check on the power of big business, despite his general preference for limited government.

Socially, Cleveland addressed issues related to veterans’ pensions with fiscal scrutiny. He vetoed hundreds of private pension bills he believed were fraudulent or unwarranted. When Congress passed a Dependent Pension Bill that would have granted pensions for disabilities not directly caused by military service, Cleveland also vetoed it, citing concerns about its broad scope and potential for abuse. Labor issues were also prominent during this period. Cleveland sent a message to Congress in 1886 calling for the creation of a federal agency to handle voluntary arbitration of labor disputes, acknowledging workingmen’s concerns about favoritism towards capital. The Haymarket Affair occurred in 1886, and the American Federation of Labor (AFL) was founded in the same year, signaling the growing organization and assertiveness of the labor movement.

A dense, black-and-white engraving shows a chaotic clash between mounted New York City police and a tightly packed mass of working-class men whose faces express fear, anger, and desperation; the bottom two-thirds of the image is consumed by a crowd of laborers wearing tattered, coarse clothing—some in ill-fitting coats with patches, others in rough woolen jackets or simple shirts with rolled-up sleeves; many wear cloth caps of various shapes, including flat caps and bowler hats, and a handful sport brimmed hats; one bearded man in a bowler hat leans forward at lower left, clutching another man’s shoulder as though to steady himself, and the bright whites of his eyes and teeth stand out against the dark crosshatching on his face; at center right, a large man with a fur-lined winter coat pushes forward with clenched fists, his mouth open in a shout, his eyes glaring at the approaching mounted officer; in the top left quadrant, a police officer on horseback is partially visible—his horse’s head, drawn in precise line work, rears slightly with flared nostrils and pinned-back ears, while the officer raises a billy club above his head, his uniform featuring a tunic with brass buttons and a peaked cap, his expression set in grim determination; the horse’s body and legs form a dark silhouette that thrusts into the mass of workers, scattering hats and limbs; behind the crowd, faint vertical lines delineate bare tree branches reaching diagonally from the upper center, and beyond them a suggestion of a fence or building facade is barely visible through the etching’s dense strokes; the sky is left blank white, creating stark contrast with the dark ribbing of lines in the foreground, and the engraver’s use of dense crosshatching accentuates the weight of the moment—each worker’s facial expression, each horsehair mane flicked back, each brushstroke suggesting agitated movement—capturing both the physical push of the crowd and the violent repression by mounted police during a Gilded Age labor confrontation.
New York police attacking unemployed workers, an illustration by Matt Morgan. Public domain image.

In foreign policy, Cleveland generally pursued a non-interventionist approach, opposing territorial expansion and entangling alliances. He withdrew the Frelinghuysen-Zavala Treaty, which would have granted the U.S. rights to build a canal in Nicaragua with joint ownership. His administration dealt with disputes over U.S. fishing rights in the North Atlantic off Canada and Newfoundland, and issues concerning the Alaskan boundary and the fur-seal population in the Bering Sea, handling these with diplomacy. A notable exception to his anti-expansionist stance was the Samoan crisis. Due to German attempts to install a puppet monarch in Samoa, Cleveland dispatched warships. This crisis ultimately contributed to a three-power protectorate over the islands involving the U.S., Germany, and Great Britain — an outcome he later criticized.

Benjamin Harrison’s Administration (1889-1893)

Benjamin Harrison’s presidency was characterized by significant legislative activity, particularly in economic policy, and an active foreign policy agenda. A key piece of economic legislation was the McKinley Tariff Act of 1890, which Harrison supported. This act raised tariff rates to historically high levels, aiming to protect American industries and agriculture. The tariff included reciprocity provisions, advocated by Harrison and Secretary of State James G. Blaine, allowing the president to reduce rates if other countries lowered theirs on American exports. It also removed duties on imported raw sugar while providing a bounty to domestic sugar growers. However, the high tariff contributed to increased consumer prices and became unpopular, playing a role in the Republican losses in the 1890 midterm elections.

Another landmark legislative achievement was the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, the first federal law designed to curb the power of trusts and monopolies by outlawing contracts, combinations, or conspiracies in restraint of trade. Harrison signed this act, fulfilling a campaign promise, though his administration’s enforcement of it was not particularly vigorous. The currency debate continued with the passage of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, which required the government to purchase a significant amount of silver each month. Harrison hoped this would be a compromise on the contentious silver issue, but it led to a depletion of the nation’s gold reserves and was later repealed.

Federal spending during Harrison’s term reached one billion dollars for the first time in peacetime, leading to the “Billion-Dollar Congress” label. This spending included substantial appropriations for internal improvements, naval expansion, and notably, pensions for Civil War veterans under the Dependent and Disability Pension Act. While intended to support veterans, the high level of spending also drew criticism and contributed to the Treasury surplus disappearing.

The rise of the Populist movement was a significant social and political development during Harrison’s presidency. Agrarian discontent, fueled by economic hardships, falling crop prices, and resentment towards railroads and banks, was exacerbated by the McKinley Tariff’s impact on farmers. This led many farmers in the South and West to support the new Populist Party, which garnered over a million votes in the 1892 election. Harrison’s administration also saw the admission of six new western states: North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, and Wyoming. He was a pioneer in conservation, facilitating the creation of national forest reserves through the Land Revision Act of 1891 and setting aside millions of acres for this purpose.

In foreign policy, Harrison and Secretary Blaine pursued an assertive agenda. The First International Conference of American States (Pan-American Conference) was held in Washington in 1889, leading to the establishment of what would become the Pan-American Union. The administration successfully negotiated a three-power protectorate over Samoa with Germany and Great Britain. Harrison took a firm stance in disputes with Chile (the Baltimore Crisis, when two American sailors were stabbed in the Chilean town of Valparaíso) and over sealing rights in the Bering Sea with Great Britain and Canada. Naval modernization continued significantly under his leadership, with the construction of new steel warships transforming the U.S. into a more credible naval power. Towards the end of his term, Harrison submitted a treaty to annex Hawaii following a coup by American-led interests, but it was not ratified before he left office and was later withdrawn by Cleveland. Harrison also endorsed bills to protect African American voting rights, though these were unsuccessful, and appointed Frederick Douglass as minister to Haiti.

Grover Cleveland’s Second Term (1893-1897)

Grover Cleveland’s second administration was dominated by severe economic challenges, most notably the Panic of 1893, which struck shortly after he took office. This financial crisis, triggered by factors including railroad overbuilding and shaky financing, led to widespread bank failures, business bankruptcies, and high unemployment, becoming the worst depression the nation had faced up to that time. Cleveland believed that the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, which mandated government silver purchases and allowed notes to be redeemed for gold, was a primary cause of the panic by depleting the Treasury’s gold reserves. He called a special session of Congress and successfully pushed for the repeal of the Act in 1893, a move that alienated the silver wing of the Democratic Party but was intended to stabilize the currency and restore confidence. Despite the repeal, gold reserves continued to dwindle, forcing Cleveland to authorize borrowing gold from Wall Street bankers, including J.P. Morgan, a controversial decision that further angered his critics.

Another significant economic measure during his second term was the Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act of 1894. Cleveland had aimed for substantial tariff reductions, but the bill was heavily amended in the Senate by special interests, resulting in more modest cuts than he desired. Disappointed, Cleveland allowed it to become law without his signature, viewing it as a slight improvement over the McKinley Tariff. The act also included a provision for a federal income tax, which was later declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan & Trust Co. (1895).

Social unrest was a prominent feature of Cleveland’s second term, largely due to the economic depression. Coxey’s Army, a protest march of unemployed workers, converged on Washington D.C. in 1894 demanding government relief programs. The most significant labor conflict was the Pullman Strike of 1894, which began as a strike by workers at the Pullman Palace Car Company and escalated into a nationwide railroad boycott led by Eugene V. Debs and the American Railway Union. When the strike disrupted mail delivery and interstate commerce, Cleveland, citing federal authority and the Sherman Antitrust Act, ordered federal troops to Chicago against the wishes of Illinois Governor John P. Altgeld. The intervention led to violence and the strike’s collapse, with Debs being arrested and imprisoned. This action was praised by business interests but severely damaged Cleveland’s relationship with organized labor. Politically, Cleveland’s handling of the economy and labor disputes contributed to a massive defeat for the Democratic Party in the 1894 midterm elections. He also signed the repeal of the Enforcement Act of 1871, which had provided federal oversight of elections. Additionally, he opposed federal efforts to protect voting rights. This stance was consistent with the broader societal and legal trends of the era, which saw a retreat from federal enforcement of civil rights, exemplified by the Supreme Court’s 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision that upheld the doctrine of “separate but equal” and thus lent constitutional cover to state-mandated segregation.

In foreign policy, Cleveland maintained his anti-imperialist stance. He withdrew the treaty for the annexation of Hawaii that Harrison had submitted, believing the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani was improper, and attempted unsuccessfully to restore her to power. He ultimately recognized the Republic of Hawaii but resisted annexation. A major foreign policy challenge was the Venezuelan boundary dispute with Great Britain in 1895. Cleveland and Secretary of State Richard Olney invoked the Monroe Doctrine, insisting on arbitration to settle the border between Venezuela and British Guiana. After initial British resistance and a period of heightened tension, Great Britain agreed to U.S. demands for arbitration, a move seen as a significant assertion of American influence in the Western Hemisphere. Cleveland also maintained a policy of neutrality regarding the Cuban War of Independence, which began in 1895, resisting domestic pressure for U.S. intervention against Spain.

A colorful, symbolic cartoon depicts President Grover Cleveland on the right, firmly gripping a long, straight sword in his left hand while pulling on the tail of a snarling, regal lion that stands atop a small, rocky island on the left; the lion, symbolizing Great Britain, is painted in golden-brown fur with every strand of its thick mane indicated through short, curved brushstrokes, and its face is set in an angry snarl, teeth bared and eyes narrowed; perched atop its head is a small, ornate British crown colored in rich purple and gold, tilted to one side; the lion’s paws press firmly against the uneven gray-and-brown rock beneath, where the words “GREAT BRITAIN” are etched in dark letters; its long tail extends to the right, the tufted end held firmly by Cleveland; the rocky island rises from a pale, textured sea of aquamarine and gray brushstrokes, with small whitecaps dotting the water’s surface; on the right, Cleveland stands on a flat, beige landmass labeled “UNITED STATES” in bold, block letters, his feet planted shoulder-width apart; he is dressed in a dark blue frock coat with broad, golden epaulettes on each shoulder and a draped red sash crossing his chest diagonally from right shoulder to left hip, while a white-gloved left hand grasps the lion’s tail; his right hand holds the polished steel blade of a long sword that points downward toward the lion, the hilt elaborately gilded; on his head he wears a bicorn hat decorated with gold braid around its edges and a large white-and-pink plume that arches above; his neatly groomed mustache and determined expression convey resolute authority; to the right of Cleveland, small, defeated caricatures of British political figures lie strewn across the sandy ground, their once-proud top hats knocked off and tumbled through the air, their Victorian coats colored in dark blues and greens, faces drawn with shocked, disgruntled expressions; one figure, face pale, leans backward onto another, while a third waves a tiny Union Jack banner as though making a last protest; behind the lion, on the rocky island, a few much smaller British characters cling to tattered flags bearing the Union Jack, their clothing rendered in faded grays and reds, and they gesture angrily toward Cleveland; the sky overhead is painted in gentle gradients of pastel pink near the horizon that merge into soft blue higher up, with a few thin, wispy white clouds; several seagulls, drawn in faint gray lines, circle above the scene; at the bottom right corner, the artist’s signature “J. S. Pughe” appears in delicate script; the overall color palette is bright and clear—Cleveland’s uniform of deep blue, red, and gold contrasts sharply with the lion’s warm browns and the island’s drab grays, while the pale, calm water and pastel sky underscore the cartoon’s depiction of American assertiveness against British aggression during the Venezuelan boundary dispute of 1895.
“Cleveland twists the tail of the lion”, a cartoon satirizing American intervention against British interests in the Venezuelan crisis of 1895. Public domain image.

The end of the Gilded Age

The deep economic divisions and agrarian discontent, particularly over the currency issue (gold versus silver), culminated in the presidential election of 1896. Cleveland’s adherence to the gold standard and his conservative economic policies had fractured the Democratic Party. The Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan, a charismatic orator who championed the cause of “free silver” — using both gold and silver as currency. Bryan’s populist appeal resonated with farmers and debtors but alarmed conservative business interests. The Republican candidate, William McKinley, campaigned on a platform of protective tariffs and maintaining the gold standard, promising economic stability. McKinley’s well-funded and organized campaign, managed by Mark Hanna, contrasted with Bryan’s energetic but less resourced effort.

McKinley’s victory in 1896 marked a significant political realignment. It solidified Republican dominance for several decades and signaled a triumph for industrial and financial interests over agrarian populism. This election is often seen as the end of the Gilded Age, ushering in an era with a different set of political and economic priorities, including a more assertive American role on the world stage under McKinley.

Conclusion

The Gilded Age was a period of profound transformation that fundamentally reshaped the United States, leaving a complex and lasting legacy for the country. During that period, the nation became a global industrial power, driven by technological innovation, the expansion of railroads, and the growth of massive corporations. While this era established the foundations of America’s modern urban and industrial landscape, it also entrenched patterns of wealth inequality, environmental degradation and difficult labor conditions. Politically, the widespread corruption and the dominance of special interests spurred reform movements, most notably for civil service reform. In addition, the struggles between labor and capital during this time laid the groundwork for the future development of the labor movement and government regulation of business. While often criticized for its problems, the Gilded Age was also characterized by intellectual and cultural developments, including the rise of realism in literature and art, and the expansion of educational opportunities. The unresolved issues and the reformist impulses born in this era directly paved the way for the Progressive Movement of the early 20th century, which sought to address many of the Gilded Age’s challenges through more extensive government intervention and social change.

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