Historia Mundum

American Civil War (1861-1865): Summary, Causes, Aftermath

This image is a vivid depiction of a large-scale Civil War battle, specifically the Battle of Gettysburg. It is a detailed and chaotic scene showcasing the intensity of combat during the American Civil War. The painting features a sprawling battlefield with numerous soldiers, artillery, horses, and visible smoke clouds filling the sky, symbolizing the continuous gunfire and cannon blasts. In the foreground, there are multiple figures on horseback, presumably officers or commanders issuing orders or leading troops into the fray. One officer, dressed in dark attire and mounted on a brown horse, holds a raised arm, appearing to rally his men. Another figure on a white horse, wearing a light blue uniform, seems to be directing attention toward the ongoing action. Scattered around them are fallen soldiers, lifeless horses, and discarded equipment such as wheels and broken wagons, emphasizing the casualties and destruction of war. To the left and right of the foreground, infantry soldiers are depicted in various stages of combat. Some are charging forward with rifles and bayonets raised, while others are retreating or attending to the wounded on the ground. The soldiers are primarily dressed in Union and Confederate uniforms, with noticeable distinctions in color—blue for the Union and gray or butternut for the Confederacy. The smoke from musket fire creates a hazy atmosphere, blending the middle ground and background into a chaotic blur of motion and violence. In the middle distance, artillery crews operate cannons, with some soldiers firing directly into advancing lines of enemy troops. Cannonballs are depicted as small, dark, flying objects cutting through the air, adding to the sense of movement. The ground is rough and uneven, littered with bodies, weapons, and debris. Horses pulling artillery pieces are seen in motion, some panicked, others struggling against the chaos of the battle. The background reveals an expansive battlefield extending into the horizon, with additional lines of soldiers clashing. The colors in this section are muted, giving an impression of depth and distance. Trees are visible scattered across the field, providing a small respite of natural scenery amid the devastation. A few small structures, possibly farmhouses or barns, are faintly seen in the far distance, hinting at the rural setting of Gettysburg. The sky above is light blue with patches of clouds, but it is dominated by smoke from the battle, creating a stark contrast between the serene natural elements and the turmoil below. The overall palette of the painting includes earthy tones—greens and browns dominate the landscape, while the blue and gray uniforms, along with splashes of red and white, create striking visual elements. This scene captures the chaos, violence, and tragedy of war, with attention to detail in the soldiers’ postures, the movement of horses, and the explosive nature of the combat. It is both a historical representation and a dramatic portrayal of one of the most pivotal battles in American history.
The Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the war as it was decisively won by the Union. Painting by Thure de Thulstrup. Public domain image.

The American Civil War was the conflict involving the United States and the Confederate States, a loose alliance of states that decided to secede from the Union in response to Abraham Lincoln’s election to the presidency. During the previous decades, there were growing tensions regarding the expansion of slavery to each state that was incorporated into the country. Lincoln was known as a proponent of restricting slavery’s expansion, thus his election led fifteen states to secede from the Union. The federal government’s reluctance to let the country split apart prompted a war involving the United States and the Confederate States. Although the combatants assumed victory would be quick, the conflict was long and deadly. In 1865, the rebel states surrendered at the Battle of Appomattox, but Lincoln ended up being murdered a few days later. The Civil War was a testament to the growing power of Northern states, whose economic power tipped the balance in favor of the Union in the battlefield. After the conflict, in the Reconstruction Era, Northerners would lead the United States towards abolishing slavery, but prejudice against Blacks remained high.

Summary

  • The North and South of the United States had long-standing differences: the North was characterized by industrialization and free labor, while the South relied on agriculture and slavery.
  • During the nineteenth century, abolitionism gained momentum through resistance efforts like the Underground Railroad and consciousness-raising initiatives such as abolitionist newspapers. Meanwhile, Northerners increasingly feared the prospect of a large-scale slave rebellion.
  • Political conflicts between Northerners and Southerners frequently arose over the expansion of slavery into new states, resulting in agreements like the Missouri Compromise (1820), the Compromise of 1850, and the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854). Over time, the Democratic Party aligned with slavery, while the Republican Party championed abolitionism.
  • The election of Abraham Lincoln to the presidency triggered the Civil War. As a Republican determined to stop slavery’s expansion into new states, Lincoln’s stance led South Carolina to secede from the Union.
  • The war, fought between the Union and the Confederate States, saw both sides with distinct advantages and disadvantages. The conflict lasted for several years and resulted in significant casualties.
  • In 1865, the South surrendered at the Battle of Appomattox, but Lincoln was assassinated shortly afterward by a pro-slavery extremist. His successor, Andrew Johnson, supported Southern interests and often clashed with the Republican-controlled Congress.
  • After the Civil War, the Reconstruction Era began, during which former Confederate states were gradually readmitted to the Union. Despite the efforts of Radical Republicans, white supremacists regained control in the South, passing Black Codes and Jim Crow laws that disenfranchised African Americans and institutionalized racial segregation.

The Causes of the Civil War

Since the colonial era, there were considerable differences between the Southern and the Northern regions of the United States:

  • The South was specialized in agricultural production, particularly cotton destined for the British textile industries. Its entire economy revolved around slavery, because African slaves were the ones who actually toiled in the cotton fields, while their American owners managed their unpaid labor. Southerners wanted easy access to lands in the West, in order to increase the size of their properties. Also, they espoused free trade, because they wanted other countries to import their cotton with minimal import tariffs.
  • The North was specialized in industrial production, primarily textiles and foodstuffs. Unlike in the South, the economy was based on free labor, and slavery was actively opposed for it meant restricting the size of the American consumer market for industrial goods. Northerners wanted to restrict access to lands in the West, namely by means of high land prices, in order to discourage free laborers from moving westward. Also, they espoused protectionism, because they wanted their products to be more competitive with foreign ones — especially those from Britain.

Over the course of the nineteenth century, Southerners grew increasingly wary of a slave rebellion — after all, Whites were the minority in the rural areas they controlled. One of the first actions they took was to focus on free Blacks, who were deemed a danger to American society. In 1816, a group of Southerners and Northerners established the American Colonization Society, a non-governmental organization with the aim to remove free Blacks from the United States. It intended to expel these former slaves to Liberia, in Africa, despite the fact that many of them had been born in America and had little ties to African societies. Ultimately, only about three thousand African Americans were forcibly emigrated, out of hundreds of thousands of them who lived in the country.

Meanwhile, abolitionism gained strength in the North, partly thanks to the actions of Blacks and even the support of some Whites. Former slaves built up the Underground Railroad, a network of escape routes and safe houses for their fellows who remained subjugated. It helped tens of thousands of slaves to flee to free-labor states and to Canada, where they could be free as well. In addition, there were abolitionist activists both in the press and in politics.

This image is a detailed historical map titled "Underground Routes to Canada," showing the network of escape routes used by fugitive slaves seeking freedom in Canada through the Underground Railroad in the 19th century. The map is black and white with red lines overlaid to represent the routes. It is labeled and annotated with city and state names, geographic features, and key points related to the Underground Railroad. The main portion of the map spans a large area of the Northeastern, Midwestern, and Southeastern United States, extending into Canada. Major states depicted include Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, New York, Michigan, and parts of Kentucky, Missouri, and Virginia. In the upper part of the map, parts of Canada, including Ontario, are visible, with cities such as Toronto and Windsor marked as destinations for freedom seekers. The red lines crisscross the map, symbolizing various paths that escaped slaves used to travel northward. These routes originate from southern states and weave through border states, connecting to northern states and ultimately crossing into Canada. Each red line represents a significant route taken, often supported by abolitionists and allies who assisted in the escape. The density of the red lines is highest near border areas and northern states, signifying heavily trafficked paths and safe havens. In the inset map located in the top left corner, a smaller detailed view of Chester and Delaware Counties in Pennsylvania is displayed. This area highlights the dense network of Underground Railroad connections in a specific region. The inset shows various towns, names of individuals or locations significant to the escape network, and specific landmarks used as safe houses or meeting points. The map is labeled with a variety of features, including city names, state boundaries, and geographic landmarks such as rivers and lakes. The Great Lakes region is prominently displayed, particularly Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, which were critical in the final stages of escape to Canada. Cities like Detroit, Chicago, Cleveland, and Buffalo are marked as key points in the network. The map’s lower right corner contains a legend and title, "‘Underground’ Routes to Canada Showing the Lines of Travel of Fugitive Slaves,” along with the cartographer’s name, W.H. Siebert, and the date, 1898. A scale of miles is included, giving a sense of the vast distances covered by those escaping slavery. The overall aesthetic of the map is utilitarian, reflecting its purpose as a historical and educational tool. The black lines and text are clean and precise, contrasting with the vivid red routes that stand out against the neutral background. The map is densely packed with information, demonstrating the complexity and extensive reach of the Underground Railroad.
A map of the Underground Railroad, a network of secret routes through which slaves could escape from oppression. Public domain image.

In the 1830s, anti-slavery newspapers began to spring up, such as The Liberator, by William Lloyd Garrison, which advocated for immediate abolition, and the St. Louis Observer, by Elijah Parish Lovejoy. In 1837, Lovejoy was fatally shot by a pro-slavery mob, thus becoming a martyr of his cause. The following year, Frederick Douglass escaped from his owners in Maryland and began to make a foray into politics, taking advantage of his captivating oratory and writing skills.

In 1848, dissident voices within the Democratic Party and the Whig Party — which dominated U.S. politics at the time — congregated in the Free Soil Party. Led by former president Martin Van Buren, they were vehemently against the extension of slavery to new states. Their party earned the support of urban workers in the East, agricultural laborers in the West, free Blacks and women, but opposition in the South remained fierce. In fact, the issue of slavery in new states was one of the most controversial matters of nineteenth-century America. Southerners were politically hegemonic, while Northerners hoped to change this by incorporating free states to the Union. Their interests clashed on multiple occasions:

  • The Missouri Compromise (1820) emerged when Missouri applied to join the Union as a slave state and Northerners vehemently opposed this. A solution was found by Henry Clay, a Democrat: Missouri’s wish would be granted, but Maine would join the U.S. as a free state. Additionally, new states located above Missouri’s latitude would necessarily be free states, while those located below would be slave states.
  • The Wilmot Proviso (1846) was put forward by Congressman David Wilmot of Pennsylvania. He argued that slavery should be banned in all American territories that were to be acquired in the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). However, the South repeatedly vetoed his idea.
  • The Compromise of 1850 emerged when California — despite being a Southern state — applied to the Union as a free state. Once again, Henry Clay orchestrated a deal: there would be no slavery in California, but the states of Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico and Utah would be formed without any mention of slavery in their constitutions. Each of them would then decide whether or not to allow slavery on their jurisdictions. Also, a Fugitive Slave Law would be passed, determining that fugitives had to be recaptured and resent to their places of origin, without the right of access to Justice.
  • The Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) allowed these states to decide for themselves whether or not to adopt slavery. In practice, this invalidated the Missouri Compromise, because both states were located above Missouri’s latitude, thus were supposed to ban slavery. In the end, particularly after violent civil confrontations in Kansas, both were incorporated as free states.
  • The final nail in the Missouri Compromise coffin came as a result of the Supreme Court decision in the Dred Scott case (1857). Scott was an enslaved American from Missouri who was briefly taken to Illinois, a free state, before returning to his original place of residence. He sued for his freedom, claiming that his entry into Illinois had automatically freed him. His request being repeatedly denied, the case ended up at the Supreme Court, where it was also denied. The Court argued that Black Americans had no rights under the Constitution, because the Founding Fathers of the country viewed them as an inferior race. Also, the Court determined that Congress did not have the authority to restrict slavery in the states — as a consequence, the Missouri Compromise was deemed unconstitutional.

By the end of the 1850s, abolitionist tendencies reached their peak, partly as a result of social pressure. In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe published Uncle’s Tom Cabin, a book that depicted enslaved individuals as sympathetic and deeply human — something that countered the common stereotypes that justified slavery at that time. In doing so, Stowe denounced those who defended slavery or profited from it as hypocrites. Her novel became an instant best-seller, helping to bring the issue of slavery into mainstream conversations. In 1859, the publication of Charles Darwin’s On the Origins of Species also fomented abolitionism, because it declared that all humans, regardless of the color of their skin, were from the very same species. That same year, John Brown led a raid on the federal arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, aiming to incite a slave uprising. However, he was ultimately captured, tried, and hanged, becoming a martyr for his cause.

At that moment, the American political establishment was entirely divided over how to deal with slavery:

  • The Democratic Party was the party that defended slavery.
  • In opposition to the Democrats, the Republican Party emerged as a broad coalition of politicians who were against slavery.

From 1857 to 1861, the Democrat James Buchanan controlled the White House. He ascended to the presidency claiming that he could prevent Americans from fighting a civil war. However, the circumstances changed in 1860, in another presidential election in which slavery was at the forefront of the debates.

  • The Democrats split: those from the North chose Stephen Douglas as their candidate, while those from the South chose John Breckinridge.
  • The Republicans picked Abraham Lincoln. In a famous speech, he had once described the United States as “a house divided against itself” that could not endure being “half slave and half free”, and he claimed that Black people were entitled to rights. Nonetheless, he openly believed that Blacks were inferior to Whites, and he had never proposed to abolish the former’s subjugation. Lincoln argued that slavery was lawful in the South, and he merely intended to prevent the formation of new slave states.
This is a black-and-white portrait photograph of a man seated, identified as a historical figure. The individual is wearing formal 19th-century attire, consisting of a dark three-piece suit. The jacket is long and tailored, with narrow lapels and a smooth texture. Beneath the jacket, the subject wears a matching waistcoat with buttons, a white dress shirt, and a dark bow tie tied neatly around the collar. The chain of a pocket watch is visible, draped across the front of the waistcoat, adding an additional element of detail to the ensemble. The clothing suggests a formal and dignified appearance, consistent with the fashion of the mid-19th century. The subject’s posture is composed, with his body angled slightly to the side but his face turned forward, engaging directly with the viewer. He is seated on a wooden chair with a high back, which is only partially visible in the image. His hands rest in his lap, with one hand holding a pair of glasses and the other lightly clasped around them. The hands show visible detail, with pronounced veins and slightly aged skin, suggesting a man of maturity. The individual has a thin, angular face characterized by high cheekbones, a prominent nose, and deep-set eyes that look outward with a calm yet somber expression. His hair is dark and slightly disheveled, combed back from his forehead with a textured and uneven appearance. He has a full beard without a mustache, a distinctive and recognizable feature of his appearance. The beard is neatly groomed but not overly styled, framing his face and adding to the gravitas of his demeanor. The background of the photograph is plain and unadorned, consisting of a smooth, light-gray backdrop. The simplicity of the background directs all attention to the subject, emphasizing his facial features and clothing. The lighting is soft and even, highlighting the contours of his face and hands without casting harsh shadows. The overall tone of the image is formal and serious, reflecting the historical significance of the individual. The photograph’s texture is consistent with early photographic techniques, featuring a slight graininess that adds to its historical character. The monochromatic palette enhances the timeless and archival quality of the image, evoking an era before the advent of color photography. This portrait captures not only the physical likeness of the subject but also conveys a sense of his character and importance.
Abraham Lincoln in 1865, depicted by Alexander Gardner. Public domain image.

Lincoln won the 1860 elections in all Northern states, but he had few votes in the South. His victory heightened North Carolina’s fear of an impending change in the status of slavery, and it decided to revoke its ratification of the U.S. Constitution. The state had long awaited an opportunity to rally the South against antislavery forces. Accordingly, by February 1, 1861, five other states joined North Carolina, and together they adopted a provisional constitution forming the Confederate States of America, presided by Jefferson Davis. On April 12, Confederate forces fired on Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, officially igniting the Civil War.

The Highlights of the Civil War

The Civil War was fought between the Confederacy, which involved up to fifteen rebel states during the course of the conflict, and the Union, comprised of the states that did not secede from the United States. The major issue at stake was the role of slavery in North America: its persistence in existing Southern states as well as its introduction or prohibition in new states. The South fought to preserve slavery, while the North, at least initially, fought to preserve the integrity of the country. Popular support for the war was limited, because most Southerners were enslaved people who had no interest in defending their oppression and because most Northerners did not want to get involved in an abolitionist armed struggle.

Both sides went to war thinking that it would be quick and easy. However, the conflict dragged on for many years, from 1861 to 1865, because each belligerent had its own advantages and disadvantages in the battlefield:

  • The North had more population and money, which turned into advantages in terms of industrial output (including arms production) and the transportation of troops. However, its military defeats discouraged Northerners to voluntarily enlist in the Army, making the Union establish conscription in 1862.
  • The South had a smaller population and could not rely on slaves, which were the vast majority of the population, to fight the war. In fact, many slaves fled to Union-controlled regions as soon as the conflict began. Nevertheless, the Southerners did have three important advantages: a tradition of military service, experienced generals, and the fact that they fought on home turf.

The first major battle, fought at Bull Run (Manassas) near Washington, D.C., was won by the South, and it shattered the shattered expectations of a quick resolution to the war. In the West, however, the Union achieved victories, aided by its naval superiority. Under the leadership of Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, the United States enforced a blockade of Southern ports, cutting off vital supplies from the rebels. In addition, the capture of New Orleans (in 1862) and Mobile Bay (in 1864) by Admiral David Farragut further isolated the South.

Meanwhile, in the Mississippi Valley, Union forces led by General Ulysses S. Grant made steady gains, capturing key territories in Tennessee and Memphis. His forces withstood a fierce counterattack at Shiloh, resulting in unprecedented casualties but securing critical ground. Yet the Union struggled in the East, repeatedly failing to capture Richmond, the Confederate capital. There, the Generals Robert E. Lee and Thomas “Stonewall“ Jackson consistently outmaneuvered the Union’s forces.

On September 22, 1862, Lincoln announced that he would free all Southern slaves by January 1, 1863, in the Emancipation Proclamation. This transformed the war into a fight for both Union preservation and the abolition of slavery, what was not viewed favorably by all Northerners. New Yorkers, for instance, revolted against military conscription, for they had little interest in partaking in an abolitionist struggle. However, Lincoln kept his promise and several African Americans joined the Union’s ranks, with approximately 178,000 serving in combat roles and 29,500 in the Navy. Their contributions were vital, even though the Union continued to sustain losses.

This painting captures a pivotal moment in American history, showing Abraham Lincoln and his cabinet as they deliberate on the Emancipation Proclamation. The setting is a formal, dimly lit room, likely a study or government office, with the men positioned around a central table. The room’s decor is subdued, with dark green walls and modest furnishings that draw attention to the figures rather than the surroundings. A fireplace is visible in the background, adding a sense of gravity and warmth to the scene. The focus of the painting is on Lincoln, seated at the table, and the interactions between him and the other men present. Abraham Lincoln sits at the center of the composition, commanding attention. He wears a dark suit with a white shirt and bow tie, his attire formal and reflective of his position as President. His posture is upright, his expression solemn and thoughtful. In his left hand, he holds a document, presumed to be the Emancipation Proclamation, while his right hand rests lightly on the table. His presence conveys the weight of his leadership during this critical moment in American history. Seated to Lincoln’s left is Salmon P. Chase, the Secretary of the Treasury. Chase is an older man with a full white beard, dressed in formal 19th-century clothing. His expression is attentive, suggesting his active engagement in the conversation. In front of him on the table are papers and books, which symbolize the intellectual and administrative work involved in the drafting of the Proclamation. His calm demeanor contrasts with the more intense expressions of some of the other cabinet members. On the opposite side of the table sits William H. Seward, the Secretary of State. Seward’s posture is slightly turned away from Lincoln, and he has his arms crossed, appearing deep in thought. His expression is serious, reflective of the critical nature of the discussions taking place. Seward’s formal attire, including a dark coat and white cravat, matches the professional setting and underscores the importance of the moment. In the background, other cabinet members are either standing or seated, each positioned in a way that conveys their involvement in the deliberation. Edwin M. Stanton, the Secretary of War, sits to the far right, partially obscured but visibly engaged in the discussion. Other figures stand with hands clasped or arms folded, their solemn expressions suggesting intense focus and contemplation. The men are all dressed formally, with dark suits and white shirts typical of the era. The room itself contains subtle details that add depth and context to the scene. A large map is draped over a chair to the right, symbolizing the geographical divisions of the Civil War and the monumental impact of the Proclamation on the nation. Books, papers, and other documents are scattered across the table, representing the intellectual labor and administrative processes behind the decision. A framed portrait hangs on the wall in the background, partially obscured by shadows, contributing to the somber atmosphere. The lighting in the painting is soft and diffused, creating a sense of depth and emphasizing the figures’ expressions and gestures. The color palette is dominated by dark tones—deep greens, browns, and blacks—punctuated by the white of shirts and documents, which draw attention to the key elements of the scene. This deliberate use of color and light highlights the gravity of the moment and focuses the viewer’s attention on the figures and their interactions.
“First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation”, a painting by Francis Bicknell Carpenter. Public domain image.

The turning point of the war came in July 1863 with the Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg. At Gettysburg, Lee’s attempt to invade the North ended in defeat, with massive casualties on both sides. Shortly after, Grant captured Vicksburg, securing control of the Mississippi River and splitting the Confederacy in two. These victories marked the beginning of the Union’s dominance, and Grant ended up being promoted to commander-in-chief. He led relentless campaigns in Virginia while General William T. Sherman marched through Georgia, capturing Atlanta and then advancing to the coast. Sherman’s “March to the Sea” devastated Southern infrastructure and morale, effectively crippling the Confederacy. These Union victories reinforced Abraham Lincoln’s popularity, and he was reelected to the presidency in November 1864, obtaining over 55% of the popular vote.

On April 9, 1865, Lee’s forces were finally overwhelmed and he surrendered to Grant at the Battle of Appomattox Court House. The terms of surrender were generous, emphasizing reconciliation rather than punishment. For example, Grant silenced celebratory Union troops, reminding them that the Confederates were their countrymen once again. However, just a few days later, on April 14, 1865, John Wilkes Booth murdered Lincoln at Ford’s Theater in Washington, D.C., in retaliation for the South’s defeat and for the rights being granted to African Americans. He ended up being killed during his capture, and his conspirators were later executed.

Lincoln’s death deeply affected the nation. Poet James Russell Lowell captured the collective grief, noting that millions mourned him as if they had lost a friend. Meanwhile, on December 1865, the entry into force of the 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the entirety of the country, except as punishment for a crime.

The Aftermath of the Civil War and the Reconstruction Era

After the Civil War, there emerged a dispute between the Radical Republicans, who wanted to fundamentally transform the South, and those who upheld Southern interests. The former had passed the Wade-Davis Bill (1864), which imposed a condition for Confederate states to return to the Union: most of their respective constituencies had to solemnly pledge to have never supported the Confederacy. While still alive, Lincoln had vetoed this bill because he wanted Southerners and Northerners to make amends. Instead of requiring a majority vote, he had proposed that Confederate states could rejoin the Union if 10 percent of their respective voters swore allegiance to it and supported federal laws, including emancipation.

Lincoln’s plan was inherited by his successor, Andrew Johnson, who espoused the interests of the South. Johnson immediately clashed with the Radical Republicans in Congress, who wanted to ensure African American suffrage. The radicals knew that former slaves had every incentive to vote for them in gratitude for abolition. Thus, they proceeded to pass several laws in this regard:

  • The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was the first law to grant citizenship to all those who were born in the United States. The president vetoed the act, but Congress overrode the veto.
  • The Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (1868) was adopted in order to define American citizens and to give privileges and immunities to them. It acknowledged African American citizenship, nullifying the precedent of the Dred Scott case, yet neglected to account for women’s citizenship. With Johnson’s support, Southern states initially refused to ratify this amendment — Tennessee being the first one to relent. Eventually, all states ratified it, for it was a requirement for them to regain representation in Congress.
  • The Reconstruction Acts (1867-1868) were four laws that Johnson vetoed, but Congress once again overturned the vetoes. They determined the following:
    • The South was to be divided into five military districts.
    • The rebel states had to submit their respective Constitutions to the approval of the federal Congress.
    • The ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment was a requirement for rebel states to request readmission to the Union.
    • The right to vote would be granted to former slaves, but not to former soldiers of the Confederacy.

Although Johnson restored political rights to many former Confederates through presidential pardons, the political landscape in Southern states fell under the control of African Americans and “carpetbaggers”. The latter were supposedly opportunistic Northerners who migrated to the South hoping to exploit the local populace for their own political and economic gain.

Nonetheless, in the long run, the efforts of Radical Republicans to ensure African American suffrage and political dominance faced a great obstacle: the rise of racism in the United States. Southern states, which were eventually taken over by former Confederates, began to pass a string of “Black Codes” prescribing norms that trapped former slaves through debt peonage. Meanwhile, since 1865, the first Ku Klux Klan was gaining popularity as a white supremacist organization keen on subjugating Blacks through intimidation and violent action.

This black-and-white illustration portrays a group of men dressed in Ku Klux Klan (KKK) regalia, gathered in an interior setting with a kneeling figure at the center. The scene is marked by its dark, ominous tone, evoking fear and intimidation. The individuals in the group are dressed in long robes and pointed hoods, which completely obscure their faces, save for eye slits that give them an eerie and anonymous presence. The hoods and robes bear symbols such as crosses and other insignias associated with the Klan, emphasizing their identity and purpose as an organization of intimidation and violence. The group is arranged in a semi-circle around the kneeling figure, who appears to be a man dressed in dark clothing. His head is bowed, and his posture is submissive, suggesting either coercion or forced participation in the scene. The kneeling man holds a hat in one hand, as though removing it in a gesture of respect or supplication, though the power dynamics of the scene suggest it is done under duress. The details of his clothing, including a coat and trousers, are simple and unembellished, contrasting with the elaborate and sinister appearance of the robed figures surrounding him. The members of the group each carry various objects, such as staffs, ropes, or weapons, adding to the threatening atmosphere. One figure in the foreground, to the left, holds a whip or lash, which dangles menacingly at his side. This object underscores the violent intentions or actions often associated with the Klan. Another figure to the right appears to grip a staff or scepter-like object, further symbolizing authority or control. The other figures hold similar implements or have their hands concealed within their robes, which adds to the unsettling ambiguity of their intentions. The background of the scene is sparse and unadorned, emphasizing the focus on the central figures. A doorway is visible in the upper left of the composition, hinting at the setting being an interior space, though its exact location is unclear. The walls are plain and lack decoration, creating a stark, oppressive environment that mirrors the scene’s tension. There are faint, shadowy details that suggest the edges of furniture or structural elements, but these are largely obscured, keeping the focus on the people and their actions. The textures in the illustration are consistent with the style of 19th-century engravings or etchings, with fine lines and cross-hatching used to depict shading and detail. The folds and drapery of the robes are intricately rendered, giving the figures a ghostly and voluminous appearance. The kneeling figure’s clothing, by contrast, is less detailed, reinforcing his vulnerability and subordination in the scene. The overall composition communicates a sense of organized intimidation and the deliberate enactment of power over the kneeling individual. The symbolism of the hoods, the group’s posturing, and the dark atmosphere collectively depict a moment of terror and coercion, highlighting the historical role of the KKK in enforcing racial and social hierarchies through fear and violence.
Ku Klux Klan (KKK) members in 1870, depicted by Green Berry Raum in the engraving of a photograph by J. G. Hester. Public domain image.

As racism mounted, there was little agreement between Andrew Johnson and the Radical Republicans. In 1868, for instance, the president attempted to dismiss Edwin Stanton, a Radical Republican, from the position of Secretary of War. Stanton barricaded inside his own office, unwilling to accept his dismissal, with the support of his partisans in Congress. The Radical Republicans accused Johnson of violating the Tenure of Office Act, which had been passed in order to prevent him from removing certain officers without the Senate’s consent. Then, Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives, but he was ultimately acquitted of any blame by the Senate. This episode turned Johnson into the first president to be impeached in America’s history.

In the 1868 presidential elections, Johnson was passed over by Horatio Seymour as the Democratic candidate, while Republicans picked Ulysses Grant for the ticket. Grant won the election and initiated a period of uncontested Republican hegemony at the White House. During more than six decades, from 1869 to 1933, the only Democratic leaders to occupy the presidency Grover Cleveland (in two non-consecutive terms) and Woodrow Wilson (in two consecutive terms).

In 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified. It established that the right of vote granted to American citizens could not be restricted under the basis of race, color or previous condition of servitude. Yet it remained unclear who could actually be considered an American citizen. In practical terms, Blacks and women remained unable to vote, and even Chinese Americans faced some obstacles. At the time, many people of Chinese descent lived in the United States, after having emigrated to California during the gold rush (1848-1855). They were clear targets of racial prejudice and, unsurprisingly, were prevented from exercising their right to vote as well.

As racism intensified in the United States, the political establishment sought strategies to address minority groups. In 1871, Congress enacted the Ku Klux Klan Act, empowering the President to suppress the KKK and other terrorist organizations. Just a few years later, in 1876, Congress proposed relocating Native Americans to what were considered improved reservations. While this initiative was ostensibly well-intentioned, aiming to prepare Native Americans for integration into American society, it ultimately backfired. The plan disregarded the wishes and cultural ties of Native Americans to their ancestral lands. As a result, their original territories fell into the hands of speculators, leaving Native Americans isolated from broader society and further marginalized.

The Reconstruction Era came to an end in 1877 following a political agreement. With Ulysses Grant having been persuaded not to seek a third term, the presidential election pitted Rutherford Hayes (a Republican) against Samuel Tilden (a Democrat). Although Tilden won the popular vote, the outcome of the Electoral College became hotly contested, as 20 electoral votes from several states were disputed. Congress intervened to resolve the controversy, ultimately awarding all contested votes to Hayes, which secured his presidency. However, Democrats filibustered this decision, prolonging the conflict. The crisis was resolved through the Compromise of 1877, also known as the Corrupt Bargain. This unwritten deal ensured Hayes’s presidency in exchange for a promise to adopt a more conciliatory approach toward the Southern states. A key condition of the deal was the withdrawal of federal troops from the South, effectively ending its military occupation. This allowed white supremacist groups, often referred to as the Redeemers, to regain control of Southern state governments.

In the aftermath of the Compromise, there was a resurgence of oppressive policies aimed at African Americans in the South. Redeemer-controlled legislatures enacted new Black Codes, which paved the way for the Jim Crow laws. They institutionalized racial segregation and effectively disenfranchised African Americans, extinguishing any remaining hope for suffrage and civil rights that had emerged during Reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 thus signaled the collapse of efforts to build a racially equitable society after the American Civil War — with enduring consequences that would only be properly dealt with in the late twentieth century.

Conclusion

Rooted in the profound differences between the North and South, the American Civil War arose from disputes over slavery and states’ rights. The conflict dragged on longer than either side anticipated, as both the Union and the Confederate States possessed unique strengths and weaknesses on the battlefield. The Union’s eventual victory marked the abolition of slavery and ushered in a period of Republican dominance in the White House. However, the South ultimately fell under the control of white supremacists, who gradually implemented Black Codes and Jim Crow laws to systematically undermine the rights of African Americans. The racial tensions that preceded the Civil War and those that resurfaced in its aftermath would not be significantly addressed until the civil rights movements of the mid-20th century. Nevertheless, even today, the United States continues to wrestle with racial inequality and prejudice, demonstrating that the legacy of the Civil War remains partially unresolved.

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