Historia Mundum

Biography of Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)

A cropped painting of Giuseppe Garibaldi, dating to 1860, showing only head and upper torso against an unadorned beige background. His face, weathered by sun and sea, is framed by a thick beard and mustache flecked with gray; his hair, receding at the temples, is brushed back. He gazes directly at the viewer with clear, steady eyes that reflect both determination and weariness. Garibaldi wears a dark woolen shirt buttoned to the neck, over which several strands of chain—perhaps symbolic of his journeys—drape across his chest. At his waist, a broad belt cinches light-colored trousers, and the hilt of a sword or knife is visible at his side. The painting’s muted palette and restrained brushstrokes emphasize the austere nobility of the Italian patriot, his plain attire contrasting with the subtle gleam of metal and chain.
A portrait of Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860, by Gustave Le Gray. Public domain image.

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) remains a celebrated figure primarily for his military exploits during the Italian Risorgimento, yet his personal life was equally marked by adventure, profound relationships, and adherence to deeply held personal values. Born into a family tied to the sea, his early life as a sailor and subsequent exile in South America forged his character and led him to his most significant personal relationship with Anita Ribeiro da Silva. Her life and death profoundly shaped his own. Following years of revolutionary activity and further exile, Garibaldi eventually retreated to a simple, agrarian existence on the island of Caprera, a life perhaps more reflective of his core nature than his global fame suggested.

Summary

  • Garibaldi was born in Nice, in a family of coastal traders and fishermen.
  • He spent over a decade as a sailor, becoming a merchant captain.
  • From 1836 to 1848, he lived in exile in South America after a failed mutiny.
  • There he met and eloped with Anita Ribeiro da Silva, his companion-in-arms.
  • Anita and Garibaldi married in Montevideo in 1842. They had four children.
  • In 1849, during a military retreat in Italy, he experienced the tragic death of Anita.
  • In 1860, he had a brief marriage to Giuseppina Raimondi, which was annulled.
  • Garibaldi spent his later years farming on the island of Caprera.
  • In 1880, he married his longtime companion Francesca Armosino, legitimizing their three children.
  • Garibaldi was known for simple good nature, honesty, and inspiring loyalty.
  • He died on Caprera in 1882.

    Family Background and Early Life (1807-1834)

    Giuseppe Garibaldi was born Joseph-Marie Garibaldi on July 4, 1807, in Nice (Nizza), then part of the First French Empire. His parents, Giovanni Domenico Garibaldi and Maria Rosa Nicoletta Raimondo, belonged to the local community of Nizzardo Italians, and the family’s livelihood came from fishing and coastal trading. Young Giuseppe felt the pull of the sea early, resisting his mother’s desire for him to enter the priesthood and instead embarking on a seafaring life at age 15. He spent over ten years as a sailor, eventually acquiring a master’s certificate as a merchant captain in 1832.

    Around 1833–1834, while serving in the navy of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, Garibaldi encountered the ideas that would shape his political convictions. He met followers of Giuseppe Mazzini, the influential proponent of Italian nationalism, and absorbed the socialist thought of the French thinker, the comte de Saint-Simon. This ideological awakening soon led to action. In 1834, Garibaldi participated in a mutiny in Piedmont intended to spark a republican revolution. The plot failed, forcing him to flee to France; a Genoese court subsequently sentenced him to death in absentia.

    Exile in South America (1836-1848)

    Forced into exile, Garibaldi lived in South America from 1836 to 1848, a period of intense upheaval on the continent that profoundly influenced his development as a military leader and shaped his personal life. He volunteered as a naval captain for the Riograndense Republic during its unsuccessful attempt to break away from the Brazilian Empire. It was during these often harrowing adventures on land and sea that he met Anna Maria Ribeiro da Silva, known as Anita. She was married at the time, but Garibaldi was instantly captivated, reportedly whispering to her upon first sight, “You must be mine”. Anita left her husband and joined Garibaldi in October 1839, quickly becoming his “companion in arms,” fighting alongside him in battles within a month.

    A mid-19th-century oil portrait of Anita Garibaldi, rendered against a deep burgundy-brown ground that accentuates her fair skin and dark hair. Her face is turned slightly three-quarters to her right, bearing a serene yet resolute expression: high cheekbones, softly arched eyebrows, and large expressive brown eyes that gaze into the distance. Her glossy black hair is parted in the center and gathered neatly behind her head, framing her face. She wears delicate gold filigree earrings shaped like hoops and teardrops, and around her neck a slender black cord supports an oval locket with a red–gold medallion. Her garment is a pale blue shawl edged with intricate white lace, painted with translucent brushstrokes that suggest the shawl’s gauzy, lightweight texture; beneath, the neckline of a dark dress peeks through. The simplicity of the composition focuses attention entirely on Anita’s dignified presence and the interplay of light and shadow on her features.
    A portrait of Anita Garibaldi, by Gaetano Gallino. Public domain image.

    Anita possessed a remarkable character, described by one of Garibaldi’s comrades as “an amalgam of two elemental forces…the strength and courage of a man and the charm and tenderness of a woman”. A skilled horsewoman, she reportedly taught Giuseppe about the gaucho culture of the South American plains. She was also known for her sarcasm and headstrong nature. Their relationship was passionate, though not without conflict, partly due to Garibaldi’s reputation as a womanizer. After several military setbacks for the Rio Grande republic, Garibaldi decided to leave its service. In 1841, he, Anita, and their first child undertook a long trek on foot from Brazil to Montevideo, Uruguay, driving a herd of cattle.

    In Montevideo, Garibaldi briefly tried civilian life as a commercial traveler and teacher but found it unsatisfying. He married Anita in Montevideo on March 26, 1842. They had four children together: Domenico Menotti (born 1840 in Brazil, with a skull deformity resulting from a fall Anita took from her horse while pregnant), Rosita (born 1843 in Montevideo, died 1845), Teresa Teresita (born 1845 in Montevideo), and Ricciotti (born 1847 in Montevideo). Garibaldi soon returned to military life, taking command of the Uruguayan navy and later the Italian Legion in Montevideo, the first of his famed “Redshirts”.

    Return to Italy: Family Life Amidst Turmoil (1848-1860)

    News of the 1848 revolutions in Europe prompted Garibaldi’s return to Italy, seeking to contribute to the cause of Italian unification. Anita accompanied him, along with members of his Italian Legion. She continued to be his companion in arms, fighting alongside him during the First Italian War of Independence and notably during the defense of the short-lived Roman Republic in 1849 against French forces seeking to restore papal rule.

    The fall of Rome in June 1849 led to a perilous retreat for Garibaldi and his followers. Anita, pregnant with their fifth child and suffering from malaria, insisted on accompanying him. Her condition worsened rapidly, and she died in Garibaldi’s arms on August 4, 1849, near Comacchio. Her body had to be buried hastily and was later disturbed. Anita’s death was a profound loss for Garibaldi; she remained a powerful presence in his memory for the rest of his life. He famously wore her striped scarf during his campaigns, and years later, while traveling in Peru, he sought out Manuela Sáenz, the exiled companion of Simón Bolívar, perhaps reflecting on his own loss of a revolutionary partner. The depth of his bond with Anita, forged in shared danger and commitment to a cause, set a unique standard for partnership in his life.

    A panoramic oil-painted interior scene depicting the tragic deathbed of Anita Garibaldi. At center, Anita lies propped on a simple wooden bed draped with a muted brown blanket; her once-vibrant cheeks have gone pale and her eyes are closed as if in final repose. To her right, Giuseppe Garibaldi stands in a dark red cloak over a brown tunic, one hand gently resting on Anita’s shoulder and the other offering comfort—his face etched with grief. To the left, a bespectacled physician in a green coat and red-lined cloak ponders deeply, hand to chin, while a woman in a green bodice and patterned kerchief kneels on a small wooden stool holding a tray bearing a glass of red wine. A red-draped table beside them holds a flask of medicine and an open book. Behind the group, the walls are painted in subdued olive tones, pierced by a small crucifix and a framed landscape; a worn wooden door at right admits a lone rifle-bearing soldier in a tan uniform, ultimately emphasizing the looming specter of war even in this chamber of mourning. The brushwork is expressive yet careful, with soft-edged shadows pooling on the earthen floor, conveying the somber gravity of the moment.
    “The Death of Anita Garibaldi”, a painting by J.J. Story. Public domain image.

    Facing renewed exile after Anita’s death, Garibaldi traveled again, spending time quietly on Staten Island, New York, around 1850-1854. He lived as a guest of the Italian inventor Antonio Meucci, and the two men worked for a time making candles. He also briefly returned to seafaring. Allowed back into Italy in 1854, he used funds raised to purchase half of the small island of Caprera, off the coast of Sardinia, in 1855, establishing the place that would become his final home.

    In January 1860, Garibaldi entered into another marriage, wedding Giuseppina, the young daughter of Marchese Raimondi. However, the union lasted only hours. Upon discovering immediately after the ceremony that she was five months pregnant, almost certainly by one of his own officers, Garibaldi abandoned her. This disastrous episode, contrasting sharply with the deep bond he shared with Anita, ended in a lengthy process to obtain an annulment, which was finally granted twenty years later.

    Later Life on Caprera (1860-1882)

    Following his famous 1860 campaign that liberated Sicily and Naples, Garibaldi famously met King Victor Emmanuel II near Teano and handed over his conquests for the sake of Italian unity. True to his character, he refused titles, land, or monetary rewards, choosing instead to retire to his island home of Caprera. He arrived back on the island reportedly carrying only simple provisions: a sack of seeds, three horses, and a bale of stockfish.

    Life on Caprera reflected Garibaldi’s simpler side, contrasting with his international fame as a flamboyant hero. He devoted himself to agriculture, cultivating fields and orchards, planting trees, and raising animals, including chickens, sheep, horses (like his white mare, Marsala), and donkeys humorously named after his political enemies. He expanded his simple house, built with communicating rooms around a central hallway, creating a small, self-sufficient community with an oven, windmill, and stables. His daughter Clelia later described this period of homesteading in her memoir, “Mio padre” (My Father). Despite his retreat, admirers continued to send gifts and make pilgrimages to the island. This return to an unadorned, agrarian life seems to represent more than just retirement. It was an embodiment of his fundamental values of simplicity and self-reliance, perhaps fueled by a growing disillusionment with the political realities of the newly unified Italy.

    A broad, sunlit landscape scene set on the rocky shores of Caprera, showing Giuseppe Garibaldi seated on a large limestone boulder in the foreground. He is dressed in his characteristic red shirt—its heavy cotton fabric catching the warm, late-afternoon light—and dark trousers tucked into simple black boots. Over his left shoulder hangs a white cloak or shawl, its folds softly draping down the rock beside him. Garibaldi is leaning forward slightly, one hand resting on his knee while the other holds what appears to be a small metal flask or telescope, its polished surface reflecting a glint of sunlight. His greying beard and receding hairline are illuminated by the gentle glow of dusk, and his head is bowed in contemplative repose. Behind him, two indistinct figures in red and dark clothing stand partially hidden among low scrub and shadowed crevices, their faces turned towards one another as if in quiet conversation. The midground is dominated by undulating rocky mounds and sparse Mediterranean vegetation—tufts of green shrubs and a single pink-flowering plant by Garibaldi’s boot—while the background reveals distant cliffs and a pale, cloud-speckled sky above a whitewashed farmhouse perched on a hillside. The overall palette ranges from warm ochres and russets in the rocks to cool purples and blues in the distant terrain, with crisp brushstrokes that capture both the rugged texture of the island and the solemn, reflective mood of the hero in exile.
    “Garibaldi at Caprera”, a painting by Vincenzo Cabianca. Public domain image.

    In 1865, Garibaldi hired Francesca Armosino, a woman from Piedmont, to help care for his daughter Teresita, who was ill. Francesca became his long-term companion on Caprera. They had three children together: Clélia (born 1867), Rosa (born 1869, died 1871), and Manlio (born 1873). After finally obtaining the decree of nullity for his marriage to Giuseppina Raimondi, Garibaldi married Francesca in 1880, legitimizing their children. This later, stable relationship, rooted in domestic life and mutual support during his declining years, provided a different kind of companionship compared to the revolutionary partnership he had shared with Anita.

    Garibaldi spent his final years largely on Caprera, though he remained interested in political affairs and was elected to the Italian parliament. He suffered increasingly from rheumatism and the effects of old wounds, eventually becoming crippled. Despite receiving a state annuity from 1876, he reportedly lived in relative poverty. His last room was arranged so his bed faced the window, allowing him a view of the outside world. Giuseppe Garibaldi died in his home on Caprera on June 2, 1882, a month shy of his 75th birthday.

    Giuseppe Garibaldi’s Character and Personal Beliefs

    Descriptions from contemporaries and historians paint Garibaldi as a man of simple good nature, amiability, and transparent honesty, capable of inspiring deep loyalty. He acted with passionate conviction and boundless enthusiasm. His adventurous spirit was evident from his youth. He was known for his courage in battle and a keen sense of the dramatic, exemplified by his adoption of the red shirt as a trademark. Physically, he was described as good-looking and athletic, with a charming manner and a penchant for flamboyant clothes. His core beliefs centered on the liberation of oppressed peoples, particularly the unification and independence of Italy under republican ideals, heavily influenced by Mazzini. He also showed interest in broader social reforms, such as the emancipation of women. While initially driven by idealism, he later expressed unhappiness with the unified kingdom’s governance.

    Conclusion

    Giuseppe Garibaldi’s life involved maritime adventure, revolutionary fervor, exile, and profound personal connections. His relationship with Anita Garibaldi stands as a central element, a partnership forged in shared ideals and danger, the loss of which left an indelible mark. His disastrous second marriage highlighted the unique nature of his bond with Anita. His final decades on Caprera with Francesca Armosino and their children represented a return to simplicity and self-sufficiency, values deeply rooted in his character that perhaps provided solace from political disillusionment. Ultimately, Garibaldi’s private journey, marked by passionate commitment, personal loss, and an enduring honesty, reveals a man whose personal values and relationships were as defining as his celebrated public deeds.

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