Napoleon Bonaparte, born in Corsica in 1769, rose from modest origins to become a celebrated French general and the Emperor of the French. His rule from 1804 to 1814, and briefly in 1815, was marked by the creation of a vast European empire and significant reforms in the conquered territories, although these were overshadowed by the destructive Napoleonic Wars.
His military career took off during the French Revolutionary Wars, leading successful campaigns in Italy and Egypt. In 1799, Napoleon seized control of the French Republic in a coup and later crowned himself Emperor in 1804. He led the Grande Armée against various European coalitions, expanding his influence across Western and Central Europe by 1807 through the Treaties of Tilsit.
However, his failed invasion of Russia in 1812 marked the beginning of his downfall, with his eventual defeat and exile to Elba in April 1814. Returning to France in 1815, he briefly reclaimed power during the Hundred Days, but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and exiled to St. Helena, where he died in 1821.
Napoleon’s military achievements are notable, with only seven losses in 60 battles. He revolutionized European warfare with his strategies, the use of conscription, and the army corps system. His methods and leadership are still studied and revered today. Additionally, the Napoleonic Code, a set of civil laws he established, had a lasting impact on European judicial systems. Napoleon’s complex legacy, as a reformer and autocrat, warmonger and liberty defender, secures his place as a pivotal figure in Western history.
Formative Years
Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, 1769, in Ajaccio, Corsica, into a family of minor Italian nobility that had settled in Corsica in the 16th century. His father, Carlo Buonaparte, was a lawyer with a substantial estate. Napoleon was the second of eight children, raised alongside his older brother Joseph and younger siblings.
Corsica, under Genoese control but largely self-governing, was sold to France in 1768, sparking local resistance. Initially, Carlo supported the resistance leader, Pasquale Paoli, but after the French quelled the uprising in 1769, he aligned with the French, gaining new titles and honors for his family.
In 1779, Napoleon and Joseph were sent to study in France, thanks to Carlo’s French connections. Nine-year-old Napoleon, feeling like an outsider at the Royal Military School of Brienne-le-Château due to his Corsican roots, turned to books for comfort, even writing essays and a history of Corsica. He showed a particular talent in mathematics and was skeptical of religious doctrines, viewing religion as a tool for political purposes.
Carlo’s death in 1784 marked a challenging period for Napoleon, who graduated from the École Militaire as an artillery lieutenant two years later. Back in Corsica, he and his siblings supported the French Revolution, leading to a rise in his military career. However, their support for France put them at odds with Corsican nationalists, including Paoli. The mounting conflict forced the Bonaparte family to leave Corsica for mainland France in 1793, a significant moment for Napoleon as he transitioned from a Corsican nationalist to a staunch supporter of France.
Napoleon during the French Revolution
In the spring of 1792, France declared war on Austria and Prussia, initiating the Revolutionary Wars. The victory at the Battle of Valmy led to the founding of the First French Republic and the execution of King Louis XVI. As the Republic’s radical policies intensified, Britain, Spain, and the Dutch Republic joined the war. A significant development occurred when a British and Spanish fleet captured the harbor of Toulon, housing the French Mediterranean Fleet.
Napoleon Bonaparte, a young and ambitious officer, wrote a pro-Jacobin pamphlet during this time, leading to his appointment as the artillery commander at the Siege of Toulon. His leadership was crucial in recapturing Toulon, earning him a promotion to brigadier general. However, after the Reign of Terror and the fall of the Jacobins, his career seemed to be at risk. This changed when he successfully defended Paris against a royalist insurrection, gaining the attention of government leader Paul Barras. Barras introduced him to Joséphine de Beauharnais, whom he married shortly before taking command of the French Army of Italy.
In Italy, Napoleon quickly demonstrated his military prowess, reorganizing the Army of Italy and swiftly defeating the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. He then focused on the Austrians, capturing Milan and setting up French client states in northern Italy. His victories led to the signing of the Treaty of Campo Formio, ending the War of the First Coalition. His success in Italy earned him the affectionate nickname ‘the Little Corporal’ and increased his fame in France.
In 1798, Napoleon embarked on a military expedition to Egypt, aiming to undermine British influence. Despite initial successes, the campaign ultimately faltered, but it contributed significantly to Egyptology, notably with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone. He returned to France in 1799 and was approached by political figures planning a coup. Napoleon led the Coup of 18 Brumaire, overthrowing the government and establishing the French Consulate. This marked the end of the French Revolution and the start of the Napoleonic era, with Napoleon as a central figure.
The Napoleonic Era
During Napoleon Bonaparte’s rule in the early 1800s, he achieved significant political and military successes. He reconciled France with the Catholic Church through the Concordat of 1801 and established the Napoleonic Code, reflecting revolutionary principles. However, his efforts to regain control of Haiti failed, leading to its independence in 1804. A major decision of his was the sale of the Louisiana territory to the United States. Militarily, he triumphed over Austria at the Battle of Marengo and temporarily ended the Revolutionary Wars with the Treaty of Amiens. By 1802, he was declared First Consul for life in France.
In 1804, Napoleon established the French Empire and crowned himself Emperor, a significant moment in European history. The Napoleonic Wars escalated with Britain declaring war in 1803, followed by the War of the Third Coalition involving several European powers in 1805. Napoleon’s military strategy was effective, notably at the Battle of Austerlitz, leading to Austria’s defeat and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. He placed his brothers on various European thrones, which drew criticism for nepotism.
The Peninsular War began in 1807 when Napoleon invaded Portugal and Spain. This conflict, marked by intense resistance and guerrilla warfare, drained French resources. In 1809, Austria initiated the War of the Fifth Coalition, where Napoleon experienced his first defeat as an emperor but eventually prevailed at the Battle of Wagram. He married Marie Louise, the daughter of the Austrian emperor, in 1810.
By 1811, tensions with Russia escalated, leading to Napoleon’s invasion in 1812 with a massive army. The campaign was disastrous, with significant losses and a retreat worsened by a harsh winter. The Sixth Coalition, including major European powers, capitalized on this weakness, leading to Napoleon’s defeat at Leipzig in 1813 and his subsequent abdication in 1814.
Napoleon returned from exile in 1815, marking the Hundred Days of his renewed reign. However, his comeback was short-lived, ending with a defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, another abdication, and another exile.
Final Exile and Death
Napoleon Bonaparte was taken into British custody and exiled to the remote Atlantic island of Saint Helena, arriving in October 1815 with 27 followers. He was heavily guarded to prevent any escape attempts. While there, he first lived in the Briars pavilion and then moved to Longwood House, which was damp and uncomfortable, sparking rumors that the British were trying to hasten his death.
Despite being a prisoner, Napoleon tried to maintain his dignity, hosting formal events and working on his memoirs. He struggled with learning English and eventually gave up. He complained about his treatment, hoping to sway public opinion and end his exile, but the British government, led by Hudson Lowe, restricted his budget and downplayed his former status, insisting his supporters stay with him.
Napoleon’s health started to decline in 1817, suffering from chronic hepatitis. The British dismissed his physician in 1818 despite the doctor’s warnings about the island’s detrimental effects on Napoleon’s health. In 1819, his condition worsened, and by 1821 he was bedridden. He wrote two wills in April, asserting he was killed by the British and expressing hopes for his son. Napoleon died on May 5, 1821, with his final words reportedly about France and Joséphine.
Autopsy reports concluded that he died of stomach cancer, a finding supported by recent studies, despite previous theories of arsenic poisoning. After his death, Napoleon was buried on Saint Helena, but in 1840, his remains were returned to France. He received a grand state funeral in Paris and was eventually entombed in Les Invalides, where he remains to this day.
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