Europe
Estates-General of 1789: Why an Old Assembly Became a Political Rupture
The Estates-General of 1789 turned France’s fiscal crisis into a dispute over representation and national sovereignty.
Charles I and the Origins of the English Civil War
The English Civil War grew from disputes over taxation, religion, Parliament, and control of armed force under Charles I.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger - Chapter 23 - The Berlin Crisis
This chapter discusses the controversy regarding the status of Berlin during the Cold War, when the Soviets reacted to Western presence in Germany.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger - Chapter 22 - Hungary
This chapter discusses the Hungarian Revolution in 1956, when university students attempted to resist Soviet domination, but were repressed by the Warsaw Pact.
The 19th Century Revolutions according to Hobsbawm
In the book “Age of Revolution,” Eric Hobsbawm discusses the French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, and other European uprisings in the 19th century.
Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation: Causes and Effects
The Protestant Reformation broke Western Christianity in the 16th century, while the Catholic Counter-Reformation reorganized doctrine, discipline and missions.
English Revolutions in the 17th Century: An Overview
The period began with the struggle against the Tudors, and ended with the ascension of Dutch monarchs to the English throne.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 15 – America Re-enters the Arena
This chapter discusses the role of Franklin Delano Roosevelt in turning World War II in favor of the Allies.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 14 – The Nazi-Soviet Pact
This chapter discusses the beginning of World War II, focusing on Stalin’s failed attempt to appease Hitler.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 13 – Stalin’s Bazaar
This chapter discusses the maneuvers of Joseph Stalin’s USSR in the lead-up to World War II.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 12 – The End of Illusion
This chapter discusses the failure of the Treaty of Versailles, which enabled the rise of Hitler's Nazism and Mussolini's Fascism in Germany and Italy.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 11 – Stresemann and the Re-emergence of the Vanquished
This chapter discusses European politics in the interwar period, with a focus on the role of Gustav Stresemann to reinsert Germany in power politics.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 10 – The Dilemmas of the Victors
This chapter discusses the challenges affecting the European international order in the aftermath of World War I.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 9 – The New Face of Diplomacy
This chapter discusses the transition from the First World War to the Treaty of Versailles, influenced by Woodrow Wilson, that established a fragile peace.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 8 – Into the Vortex
This chapter discusses the short-term causes for the outbreak of World War I after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 7 – A Political Doomsday Machine
This chapter discusses the long-term tensions between Germany, Russia, Great Britain and France that led to World War I.
Unification of Germany: Origins, Wars & Bismarck’s Role
Germany was created from wars that unified various small kingdoms and two larger ones: Austria and Prussia.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 6 – Realpolitik Turns on Itself
This chapter discusses the initiatives of Bismarck’s Germany to influence the balance of power in 19th-century Europe.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 5 – Two Revolutionaries
This chapter discusses the roles of Napoleon III and Otto von Bismarck in shaping France and Germany, respectively.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 4 – The Concert of Europe
This chapter discusses European politics after the Napoleonic Era, when five countries began to share power in the continent.
Unification of Italy: Summary, Origins, Phases
The Risorgimento made Italy become an independent country thanks to revolutionaries like Garibaldi and moderates like Cavour.
Summary: Diplomacy by Kissinger – Chapter 3 – From Universality to Equilibrium
This chapter discusses European politics in the 17th century, focusing on the roles of Cardinal Richelieu, William of Orange, and William Pitt.
Revolutions of 1848: Springtime of the Peoples
In 1848, Europeans from various countries would rebel simultaneously, helping to usher in a new era of political liberalism.
Liberal Revolutions of the 1830s in Europe
In the 1830s, France got itself a bourgeois king, the Belgians got their independence, and Italian, German and Pole liberals were defeated.
Liberal Revolutions of the 1820s in Europe
In the 1820s, liberals attempted to seize power in Spain, a civil war occurred in Portugal, and the Greek got their independence.
Liberal Revolutions in 19th-Century Europe: 1820, 1830 and 1848
The liberal revolutions in 19th-century Europe challenged the Vienna order in 1820, 1830 and 1848 with constitutional demands.
Concert of Europe: Alliances, Congresses & Wars
The Concert of Europe was a system of great-power politics in which five countries dominated European affairs from 1815 to 1871.
Congress of Vienna: Participants, Principles & Decisions
In the Congress of Vienna, European powers reshaped the continent's map and politics after the Napoleonic Era.
Napoleonic Era: Summary, Phases & Consequences
For more than one decade, Napoleon reigned over France and dominated Europe, but he was ultimately defeated.
French Revolution: Summary, Causes & Phases
The French Revolution was the process that began with a challenge to the rule of Louis XVI and ended with Napoleon Bonaparte’s rise to power.
Enlightenment: Ideas, Philosophers & Impact
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that aimed to revolutionize European states.
Renaissance: History, Features, Highlights
The Renaissance was a cultural movement in Europe, marking the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age.
The Modern European State System
Modern states were characterized by absolutism and mercantilism, and would inaugurate a new international order.
Feudalism: Origins, Characteristics & Decline
Feudalism was a political, economic and social system that existed in Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries.