The Estates-General of 1789 turned France’s fiscal crisis into a dispute over representation and national sovereignty.

The English Civil War grew from disputes over taxation, religion, Parliament, and control of armed force under Charles I.

For three centuries, Brazil was ruled by Portugal under a harsh colonial system whose practices continued long after independence.

Garibaldi was a major leader of the unification of Italy and he had an adventurous and tumultuous personal life.

During the Gilded Age, the United States experienced unprecedented growth and urbanization, but corruption and social issues prevailed.

This chapter discusses the state of international relations and American foreign policy after the Cold War’s end.

The Mexican Revolution began in 1910 against Porfirio Díaz and reshaped Mexico through civil war, land demands and the Constitution of 1917.

Reconstruction tried to rebuild the United States after the Civil War and define freedom, citizenship, and federal power.

Adolf Hitler turned German crisis, racial ideology, and dictatorship into Nazi rule, World War II, and the Holocaust.